Chapter 23 Textbook Notes

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61 Terms

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Genetics

The study of ways in which biological information is passed from one generation to the next.

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Gregor Mendel

An Austrian monk who pioneered the field of genetics and conducted experiments with pea plants to understand the inheritance of physical characteristics.

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Hybrid

The offspring of two different strains, such as tall and short pea plants.

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Gene

The "unit of inheritance" that determines the characteristics of an organism. Mendel used this term to explain his findings, although he had no knowledge of its physical existence.

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Dominant gene

A gene that is expressed and determines the physical characteristics of an offspring when present with a recessive gene.

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Recessive gene

A gene that is present in the offspring but does not determine the physical characteristics when paired with a dominant gene.

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Classical genetics rules:

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Physical characteristics or traits are passed from parents to offspring by genes.

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Each offspring has two genes for each trait, one from each parent.

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Some genes are dominant and some are recessive. Dominant traits are expressed in preference to recessive traits.

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Molecular genetics

The study of the mechanism that passes genetic information from parents to offspring at the molecular level.

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Chromosomes

Distinctive structures that carry genetic information and divide during cell division.

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DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid, the primary component of chromosomes and the molecule that carries and interprets the genetic code.

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Nucleotides

The building blocks of nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA. They follow the principles of modularity and geometry.

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Proteins

Chains of amino acids that can form large structures from a single kind of building block.

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Carbohydrates

Clusters of sugar molecules that can form large structures from a single kind of building block.

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Nucleic acids

Assembled from subunits called nucleotides, which are made from three different kinds of smaller molecules.

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Nucleotide

The assemblage of three molecules - a sugar, a phosphate, and a base - that make up nucleic acids.

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Deoxyribose

The sugar molecule in DNA, which is similar to ribose but is missing one oxygen atom.

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Ribose

The sugar molecule in RNA, containing five carbon atoms.

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Phosphate ion

Includes one phosphorus atom surrounded by four atoms of oxygen, a key component of nucleotides.

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Bases

Four different kinds of molecules in DNA - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).

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DNA

Made by linking nucleotides together in a specific way, forming a ladder-like double strand with base pairs.

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RNA

Built in a similar manner to DNA, but with ribose as the sugar and uracil (U) replacing thymine (T) as a base.

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DNA replication

The process of copying DNA, where special enzymes break the hydrogen bonds between bases and reconstruct the missing strand.

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Genetic code

The information carried by DNA and translated into proteins by RNA.

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Transcription

The process of using RNA to copy the information from DNA and carry it out into the cell.

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Messenger RNA (mRNA)

The type of RNA that carries the coded message from DNA to the site of protein synthesis.

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Transfer RNA (tRNA)

The type of RNA that reads the coded message on mRNA and brings the corresponding amino acids to the site of protein synthesis.

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Codon

A set of three bases on the mRNA that determines which tRNA molecules will attach and determines a single amino acid.

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Genetic code

The connection between codons on mRNA and the amino acids they select, shared by all living things.

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Protein synthesis

The process of assembling a protein using ribosomes, mRNA, tRNA, and amino acids.

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Ribosomes

Large organelles made of proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) that align mRNA and tRNA during protein assembly.

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Gene

A stretch of DNA that codes for a specific protein enzyme and determines traits in an organism.

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Central dogma of molecular biology

The rule that one gene codes for one protein.

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Exons

The coding sections of DNA within a gene that code for the protein.

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Introns

The noncoding sections of DNA within a gene that are interspersed between exons.

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DNA repair

Mechanisms that fix damage to the DNA molecule, which occurs at a high rate due to various agents.

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Gene expression

The process by which certain genes are activated in specific cells to carry out their functions.

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Viruses

Non-living entities consisting of genetic material (RNA or DNA) wrapped in a protein coating that rely on cellular machinery to reproduce.

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HIV

A complex virus that contains RNA and enzymes to insert its DNA into a host cell, leading to the destruction of immune system cells.

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Antibiotics

Drugs that can destroy invading bacteria without harming the human cells.

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Viral diseases

Diseases caused by viruses that cannot be treated as effectively with commonly available drugs as bacterial infections.

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Vaccination

A countermeasure for viral diseases that stimulates the human immune system to produce antibodies that neutralize the virus.

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Mutation

The rapid rate of change in viruses, such as HIV and influenza, due to the lack of proofreading mechanisms during DNA copying.

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Human Genome Project

A scientific project aimed at determining the complete description of all the base pairs in human DNA.

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Chromosomes

Bundles of DNA that contain genes and are the packaging into which the DNA is put.

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DNA sequencing

The process of determining the exact order of bases along a DNA molecule.

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Genetic map

Shows the location and sequence of genes along a chromosome, used to identify genes for specific traits.

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Epigenetics

New modes of influence on genetic inheritance that do not involve changes in the sequence of base pairs.

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Methylation

A process in which a methyl molecule attaches itself to a spot on the DNA chain, preventing the normal process of gene expression from starting.

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Gene

Units of inheritance that are passed from parent to offspring and contribute to the inheritance of physical characteristics or traits.

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Dominant gene

A gene that, when present together with a recessive gene, will be expressed and determine the trait.

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Recessive gene

A gene that will only appear if no dominant gene is present.

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Nature versus nurture

The debate about the relative influence of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) on the development of characteristics in organisms.

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Replication

The process of copying DNA before cell division, which involves splitting apart the two sides of the DNA double helix and forming two complete DNA strands.

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Transcription

The process in which the DNA message is read by RNA, specifically messenger RNA (mRNA), which copies the sequence for one gene and carries it out of the nucleus.

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Genetic code

The correspondence between base-pair sequences in DNA or RNA and the amino acids that they code for, shared by every living organism.

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Mutation

Errors in the coded sequence of DNA that can occur and cause changes in the genetic information.

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Genome

The complete description of an organism's genetic code, including the positions of every gene on every chromosome and the exact order of base pairs on every gene.

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