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Genetics
The study of ways in which biological information is passed from one generation to the next.
Gregor Mendel
An Austrian monk who pioneered the field of genetics and conducted experiments with pea plants to understand the inheritance of physical characteristics.
Hybrid
The offspring of two different strains, such as tall and short pea plants.
Gene
The "unit of inheritance" that determines the characteristics of an organism. Mendel used this term to explain his findings, although he had no knowledge of its physical existence.
Dominant gene
A gene that is expressed and determines the physical characteristics of an offspring when present with a recessive gene.
Recessive gene
A gene that is present in the offspring but does not determine the physical characteristics when paired with a dominant gene.
Classical genetics rules:
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Physical characteristics or traits are passed from parents to offspring by genes.
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Each offspring has two genes for each trait, one from each parent.
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Some genes are dominant and some are recessive. Dominant traits are expressed in preference to recessive traits.
Molecular genetics
The study of the mechanism that passes genetic information from parents to offspring at the molecular level.
Chromosomes
Distinctive structures that carry genetic information and divide during cell division.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid, the primary component of chromosomes and the molecule that carries and interprets the genetic code.
Nucleotides
The building blocks of nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA. They follow the principles of modularity and geometry.
Proteins
Chains of amino acids that can form large structures from a single kind of building block.
Carbohydrates
Clusters of sugar molecules that can form large structures from a single kind of building block.
Nucleic acids
Assembled from subunits called nucleotides, which are made from three different kinds of smaller molecules.
Nucleotide
The assemblage of three molecules - a sugar, a phosphate, and a base - that make up nucleic acids.
Deoxyribose
The sugar molecule in DNA, which is similar to ribose but is missing one oxygen atom.
Ribose
The sugar molecule in RNA, containing five carbon atoms.
Phosphate ion
Includes one phosphorus atom surrounded by four atoms of oxygen, a key component of nucleotides.
Bases
Four different kinds of molecules in DNA - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
DNA
Made by linking nucleotides together in a specific way, forming a ladder-like double strand with base pairs.
RNA
Built in a similar manner to DNA, but with ribose as the sugar and uracil (U) replacing thymine (T) as a base.
DNA replication
The process of copying DNA, where special enzymes break the hydrogen bonds between bases and reconstruct the missing strand.
Genetic code
The information carried by DNA and translated into proteins by RNA.
Transcription
The process of using RNA to copy the information from DNA and carry it out into the cell.
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
The type of RNA that carries the coded message from DNA to the site of protein synthesis.
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
The type of RNA that reads the coded message on mRNA and brings the corresponding amino acids to the site of protein synthesis.
Codon
A set of three bases on the mRNA that determines which tRNA molecules will attach and determines a single amino acid.
Genetic code
The connection between codons on mRNA and the amino acids they select, shared by all living things.
Protein synthesis
The process of assembling a protein using ribosomes, mRNA, tRNA, and amino acids.
Ribosomes
Large organelles made of proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) that align mRNA and tRNA during protein assembly.
Gene
A stretch of DNA that codes for a specific protein enzyme and determines traits in an organism.
Central dogma of molecular biology
The rule that one gene codes for one protein.
Exons
The coding sections of DNA within a gene that code for the protein.
Introns
The noncoding sections of DNA within a gene that are interspersed between exons.
DNA repair
Mechanisms that fix damage to the DNA molecule, which occurs at a high rate due to various agents.
Gene expression
The process by which certain genes are activated in specific cells to carry out their functions.
Viruses
Non-living entities consisting of genetic material (RNA or DNA) wrapped in a protein coating that rely on cellular machinery to reproduce.
HIV
A complex virus that contains RNA and enzymes to insert its DNA into a host cell, leading to the destruction of immune system cells.
Antibiotics
Drugs that can destroy invading bacteria without harming the human cells.
Viral diseases
Diseases caused by viruses that cannot be treated as effectively with commonly available drugs as bacterial infections.
Vaccination
A countermeasure for viral diseases that stimulates the human immune system to produce antibodies that neutralize the virus.
Mutation
The rapid rate of change in viruses, such as HIV and influenza, due to the lack of proofreading mechanisms during DNA copying.
Human Genome Project
A scientific project aimed at determining the complete description of all the base pairs in human DNA.
Chromosomes
Bundles of DNA that contain genes and are the packaging into which the DNA is put.
DNA sequencing
The process of determining the exact order of bases along a DNA molecule.
Genetic map
Shows the location and sequence of genes along a chromosome, used to identify genes for specific traits.
Epigenetics
New modes of influence on genetic inheritance that do not involve changes in the sequence of base pairs.
Methylation
A process in which a methyl molecule attaches itself to a spot on the DNA chain, preventing the normal process of gene expression from starting.
Gene
Units of inheritance that are passed from parent to offspring and contribute to the inheritance of physical characteristics or traits.
Dominant gene
A gene that, when present together with a recessive gene, will be expressed and determine the trait.
Recessive gene
A gene that will only appear if no dominant gene is present.
Nature versus nurture
The debate about the relative influence of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) on the development of characteristics in organisms.
Replication
The process of copying DNA before cell division, which involves splitting apart the two sides of the DNA double helix and forming two complete DNA strands.
Transcription
The process in which the DNA message is read by RNA, specifically messenger RNA (mRNA), which copies the sequence for one gene and carries it out of the nucleus.
Genetic code
The correspondence between base-pair sequences in DNA or RNA and the amino acids that they code for, shared by every living organism.
Mutation
Errors in the coded sequence of DNA that can occur and cause changes in the genetic information.
Genome
The complete description of an organism's genetic code, including the positions of every gene on every chromosome and the exact order of base pairs on every gene.
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