AP Psych Unit 3

collectivism

Definition: A cultural value system that emphasizes group goals, cooperation, and social harmony over personal achievement or independence.

Example: In many East Asian cultures, people often make family or community decisions together instead of focusing on individual choice.

epigenetics

Definition: The study of how the environment can affect gene expression—turning genes on or off—without changing the DNA code.

Example: Twins with the same DNA can develop different traits if one experiences stress or poor nutrition that alters gene activity.

gender

Definition: The set of social and cultural traits, roles, and expectations that a society associates with being male, female, or another identity.

Example: In some cultures, boys may be encouraged to be competitive while girls are encouraged to be nurturing.

gender identity

Definition. A person’s deeply felt internal sense of being male, female, a blend of both, neither, or another gender. It may or may not correspond with the sex assigned at birth.

Example: Someone assigned female at birth may feel and identify as male, reflecting their inner sense of self rather than biology.

gender role

Definition. The expectations, behaviors, and norms that a society considers appropriate for men, women, or other genders. These are culturally prescribed.

Example: Women being expected to care for children and men being expected to provide financially reflects traditional ___ expectations.

genes

Definition. Segments of DNA that carry the instructions for the synthesis of proteins (or influence regulation) and thus contribute to our traits and biological functioning.

Example: A person’s eye color or risk for certain diseases can be influenced by specific ___ passed from parents.

heredity/heritability

Definition:

• The passing of biological traits from parents to offspring.

• The percentage of variation in a trait within a group that can be traced to genetic differences.

Example: Intelligence shows moderate heritability—identical twins raised apart often have similar IQ scores, showing a genetic influence.

norm

Definition: An understood rule or expectation for accepted and proper behavior within a group.

Example: Shaking hands when meeting someone is a social ___ in many Western countries.

role

Definition: A set of behaviors or responsibilities expected from someone who occupies a certain position.

Example: The ___ of a teacher includes explaining material and grading students’ work.

social learning theory

Definition: The idea that behavior is learned by observing and imitating others, as well as through rewards or punishments.

Example: A child who sees a parent calmly solving problems may imitate that behavior when frustrated.

temperament

Definition: A person’s natural style of emotional reactivity and intensity, often seen from infancy and staying stable through life.

Example: Some babies are naturally easygoing while others are more irritable, differences that often persist as they grow up.

transgender

Definition: Describes someone whose sense of gender does not match the sex assigned at birth.

Example: A person born male may identify and live as female, aligning appearance and identity through social or medical transition.

sexual orientation

Definition: A person’s enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction toward others.

Example: Someone who is attracted to people of the same sex identifies as gay or lesbian; attraction to both sexes is called bisexual.

adolescence

Definition: The developmental stage between childhood and adulthood marked by physical changes, new thinking abilities, and identity exploration.

Example: Teenagers may question parental values and begin to form their own beliefs and long-term goals.

theory of mind

Definition: The ability to understand that other people have their own thoughts, feelings, and perspectives different from one’s own.
Stage: Typically develops during the preoperational stage (around ages 3–4).

Example: A child realizes that another person might not know what’s inside a hidden box, showing awareness of separate thoughts.

assimilation vs. accommodation

Definition:

• Fitting new information into existing mental frameworks.

• Changing mental frameworks to include new information.

Example: A child calling every four-legged animal a “dog” shows _____; learning that a cat is different shows _____.

secure attachment

Definition: A strong emotional bond where an infant feels safe exploring but seeks comfort when distressed.

Example: A baby cries when the caregiver leaves but calms quickly when they return.

avoidant attachment

Definition: A pattern where the child values extreme independence, discomfort with intimacy, and emotional self-sufficiency, often arising from emotionally distant caregiving, causing partners to pull away when things get too close.

Example: A child ignores a parent after they come back into the room.

anxious attachment

Definition: A pattern where the child is very upset when the caregiver leaves and remains angry or resistant when they return. Involves a deep craving for closeness, fear of abandonment, and seeking constant reassurance, often stemming from inconsistent caregiving, leading to clinginess

Example: A toddler clings to the parent, cries intensely, and refuses comfort upon reunion.

disorganized insecure attachment

Definition: A pattern of confused or contradictory behavior toward a caregiver, often linked to fear or inconsistent care.

Example: The child may approach the parent but suddenly freeze or look away, unsure how to respond

autism spectrum disorder (autism)

Definition: A developmental condition involving difficulties with social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors.

Example: A child might avoid eye contact, have intense interests in certain topics, or repeat specific movements.

parallel play

Definition: When toddlers play beside each other without interaction. Appears in preoperational stage (ages 2-4)

Example: Two toddlers building blocks side-by-side

pretend play

Definition: When children use imagination to act out roles or stories

Example: Pretending a banana is a phone

conservation

Definition: The understanding that certain properties, like quantity or volume, stay the same even when appearance changes.

Example: A child realizing that pouring juice into a taller glass doesn’t make there “more” shows understanding of ___.

cross-sectional study

Definition: A research method comparing people of different ages at one time to observe age-related differences.

Example: Testing memory in groups of 10-, 20-, and 30-year-olds on the same day.

egocentrism

Definition: The difficulty young children have in taking another person’s viewpoint.

Example: A preschooler may think that if they can see the TV, everyone else can too.

rooting reflex

Definition: A newborn’s automatic reaction to turn toward a touch on the cheek and begin sucking motions.

Example: When touched on the face, a baby turns and opens their mouth, helping them feed.

emerging adulthood

Definition: A period from the late teens to mid-twenties when people explore roles and gradually gain independence.

Example: College students often test careers and relationships before committing to adult responsibilities.

imaginary audience

Definition: The belief among adolescents that others are constantly watching and judging them.

Example: A teen may feel embarrassed about a small stain, thinking everyone will notice.

personal fable

Definition: A sense in adolescence that one’s experiences are unique and that one is invincible.

Example: A teen thinking, “Nothing bad will happen to me if I drive fast” illustrates this belief.

social clock

Definition: The culturally expected timeline for major life events like marriage, career, or retirement.

Example: Feeling “behind” because friends are already married reflects pressure from the ___.

fetal alcohol syndrome

Definition: Physical and mental abnormalities in a child caused by alcohol exposure before birth.

Example: A baby may have distinct facial features and developmental delays after the mother drank heavily while pregnant.

habituation

Definition: A decrease in response after repeated exposure to the same stimulus.

Example: A baby stops staring at a toy after seeing it many times, showing they’ve grown used to it.

Harlow

Definition: Psychologist who showed that comfort and touch are more important than feeding in forming attachment.

Example: Baby monkeys clung to a soft cloth “mother” rather than a wire one that provided food.

identity

Definition: A sense of who one is, including values, goals, and beliefs that provide direction and consistency in life.

Example: During adolescence, a teen might explore religion or career paths to build a stable sense of self.

imprinting

Definition: A rapid learning process in some animals that creates strong attachment to the first moving object seen after birth.

Example: Baby ducks following the first person they see, as in Lorenz’s study.

intimacy

Definition: The ability to form close, trusting relationships with others.

Example: Young adults often seek deep friendships or romantic bonds after developing a clear sense of self.

longitudinal study

Definition: A research method that follows the same individuals over a long period to track changes over time.

Example: Psychologists might follow a group of children from preschool to adulthood to study personality development.

menarche

Definition: The first menstrual period.

menopause

Definition: The natural end of a woman’s reproductive years, marked by the cessation of menstruation and a decline in estrogen levels.

Example: A woman in her early 50s may experience hot flashes and mood changes as her hormone levels decrease.

object permanence

Definition: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible.

Example: A baby who looks for a toy after it’s hidden under a blanket shows that they’ve developed ___.

sensorimotor stage (birth-2 yrs)

Definition: Infants learn about the world through senses and actions.
Typical Behavior: Reaching, grasping, mouthing, and exploring.
Can’t Do: Thinking about things that aren’t directly in sight; lack of object permanence early on.

Example: A baby stops looking for a toy once it’s covered by a blanket (before object permanence develops).

preoperational stage (2-7 yrs)

Definition: Children begin using words and images to represent things but think in intuitive, not logical, ways.
Typical Behavior: Pretend play, using symbols, and egocentric thinking.
Can’t Do: Understand conservation or take another’s perspective.

Example: A child believes a taller glass has more water even if it was poured from the same cup.

concrete operational stage

Definition: Children gain logical thinking about concrete events but struggle with abstract ideas.
Typical Behavior: Understanding conservation and mathematical transformations.
Can’t Do: Hypothetical or abstract reasoning.

Example: A child understands that 4 × 3 equals 12, and so does 3 × 4.

formal operational stage (12+ yrs)

Definition: The stage where reasoning becomes abstract and systematic.
Typical Behavior: Using logic to solve hypothetical problems and think about moral or future issues.
Can’t Do: Younger teens may still struggle with abstract reasoning consistency.

Example: A student can think through “what if” questions, like imagining life on another planet.

primary sex characteristics

Definition: The reproductive organs and external genitalia directly involved in producing offspring.

Example: Ovaries, testes, and external genital development during puberty.

schemas

Definition: A mental framework or concept that organizes and interprets information.

Example: A child’s “dog” ___ might include any four-legged furry animal until they refine it through learning.

secondary sex characteristics

Definition: Physical traits that appear during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction.

Example: Voice deepening in males and breast development in females.

self-concept

Definition: A person’s understanding and evaluation of who they are.
Factors Impacting It: Parenting style, peer feedback, achievements, and cultural values.

Example: A child who is praised for effort and supported by parents may develop a positive ___.

social clock

Definition: The culturally expected timeline for life events such as marriage, parenthood, or retirement.

Example: Someone may feel “behind” if their friends are already married and starting families.

stranger anxiety

Definition: The fear of unfamiliar people, typically emerging around 8 months of age.

Example: A baby cries when held by someone other than their parents.

teratogens

Definition: Harmful substances or agents that can damage a developing embryo or fetus.

Example: Alcohol exposure during pregnancy can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome.

foreclosure

Definition: When an individual adopts a set of beliefs or identity without exploring alternatives, often based on parents’ values.

Example: A teen decides to become a lawyer because their parents expect it, without considering other interests.

achievement

Definition: When a person explores different options and commits to a well-defined sense of self.

Example: After trying different activities and classes, a college student chooses a career path that feels authentic.

diffusion

Definition: A state of little motivation or direction, with no exploration or commitment to any identity.

Example: A young adult drifts between jobs or majors without clear goals.

moratorium

Definition: A period of active exploration without final commitment, common in adolescence.

Example: A student experiments with different clubs, beliefs, or jobs to find personal meaning.

scaffolding

Definition: A process in which a skilled person provides temporary support to help a learner achieve a task just beyond their current ability.

Example: A teacher guiding a child step-by-step on how to solve a math problem until they can do it independently.

ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner)

Definition: A model describing how various environmental systems influence human development.
Stages: Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, Macrosystem, Chronosystem.

microsystem

Definition: The immediate environment that directly interacts with the person.

Example: Family, peers, school, and neighborhood.

exosystem

Definition: External settings that indirectly affect the individual.

Example: A parent’s stressful workplace influencing home life.

macrosystem

Definition: The broader cultural, societal, and economic influences that shape an individual’s environment.

Example: Cultural values about education or gender roles.

chronosystem

Definition: The dimension of time, including life transitions and historical events that affect development.

Example: Growing up during the digital age or experiencing parental divorce.

authoritarian parenting

Definition: A strict, controlling approach that values obedience and discipline over warmth.
Outcomes: Children may become obedient but less socially skilled or have lower self-esteem.

Example: A parent who sets rigid rules and punishes mistakes without explanation.

authoritative parenting

Definition: A balanced approach that combines warmth, reasoning, and clear expectations.
Outcomes: Children tend to be responsible, confident, and socially competent.

Example: A parent sets clear rules but also explains reasons and listens to their child’s perspective.

permissive parenting

Definition: A lenient style with few rules and high responsiveness but low demands.
Outcomes: Children may struggle with self-control and authority.

Example: A parent who lets their child set their own bedtime and avoids enforcing rules.

acquisition

Definition: The initial phase of learning in which a connection is formed between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.

Example: A dog learns to associate the sound of a bell with food being served.

one-trial conditioning

Definition: Learning that occurs after a single pairing of a stimulus and response, often because it’s intense or significant.

Example: Developing a food aversion after one episode of food poisoning.

classical conditioning

Definition: A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus, producing a similar response.

Example: Pavlov’s dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a bell that predicted food.

cognitive map

Definition: A mental representation of one’s environment or spatial layout.

Example: Rats learn the layout of a maze and can find the exit even when the route is changed.

conditioned response (CR)

Definition: A learned reaction to a previously neutral stimulus after association with an unconditioned stimulus.

Example: Salivating at the sound of a bell after learning it predicts food.

conditioned stimulus

Definition: A previously neutral cue that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, begins to trigger a learned response.

Example: The sound of a bell that makes a dog salivate after it has been associated with food.

continuous reinforcement

Definition: A learning schedule in which a behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs.

Example: Giving a dog a treat every time it sits on command.

discrimination learning

Definition: The ability to tell the difference between similar stimuli and respond only to the one that signals reinforcement.

Example: A dog learns to salivate to one specific bell tone but not to other sounds.

extinction

Definition: The weakening of a learned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Example: A dog stops salivating to the bell when food is no longer given afterward.

extrinsic motivation

Definition: Doing something to gain a reward or avoid punishment rather than for personal satisfaction.

Example: Studying hard to earn good grades instead of learning for interest.

fixed-interval schedule

Definition: A reinforcement system that rewards behavior after a set amount of time has passed.

Example: Getting paid every two weeks regardless of how many tasks were completed.

variable-interval schedule

Definition: A reinforcement schedule where rewards come after unpredictable time intervals.

Example: Checking your phone for new messages—rewards (texts) appear at random times.

fixed-ratio schedule

Definition: A pattern in which reinforcement is given after a specific number of responses.

Example: A worker is paid after assembling every 10 products.

variable-ratio schedule

Definition: Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses.

Example: Slot machines reward players after a random number of lever pulls.

partial/intermittent reinforcement

Definition: A system where responses are sometimes reinforced and sometimes not, leading to slower learning but greater resistance to extinction.

Example: A child receives praise for good behavior only occasionally, not every time.

generalization (in conditioning)

Definition: Responding in the same way to stimuli that resemble the conditioned one.

Example: A dog that salivates to a bell may also salivate to a similar-sounding tone.

higher-order conditioning

Definition: When a new neutral stimulus becomes linked to a previously conditioned stimulus, creating a second, weaker association.

Example: A light is paired with a bell that already makes a dog salivate; eventually, the light alone triggers salivation.

intrinsic motivation

Definition: Doing something for its own enjoyment or personal value rather than for an external reward.

Example: Playing an instrument simply because it feels rewarding.

latent learning

Definition: Learning that occurs without immediate reward and becomes apparent only when it’s needed.

Example: A rat remembers the layout of a maze and uses it later when food is introduced.

Law of Effect (Thorndike)

Definition: Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are likely to be repeated, while those followed by negative outcomes are less likely to recur.

Example: A cat quickly learns to press a lever to escape a box after discovering it leads to food.

mirror neurons

Definition: Brain cells that activate both when performing an action and when observing someone else perform that same action.

Example: Seeing someone smile activates similar brain areas as when you smile yourself.

modeling

Definition: Learning by observing and imitating others’ behaviors.

Example: A child learns to tie their shoes by watching a parent demonstrate it.

negative reinforcement

Definition: Increasing a behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus.

Example: Buckling your seatbelt stops the car’s beeping sound, making you more likely to buckle up.

neutral stimulus

Definition: A cue that initially produces no response before becoming associated with another stimulus.

Example: A bell that has no meaning to a dog before it’s paired with food.

observational learning

Definition: Acquiring behaviors or knowledge by watching others and seeing the consequences of their actions.

Example: A child learns to share after seeing classmates get praise for sharing.

operant conditioning

Definition: A form of learning where behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences, such as rewards or punishments.

Example: Training a dog to roll over by giving treats each time it performs the action.

instinctive drift

Definition: The tendency of learned behaviors to revert to natural, biological instincts over time.

Example: A trained raccoon reverts to rubbing coins together instead of depositing them as trained.

vicarious conditioning

Definition: Learning that happens by observing someone else being rewarded or punished for a behavior.

Example: A student stops talking in class after seeing another student scolded for it.

continuous reinforcement (graph)

Definition: A pattern of learning in which each correct behavior is reinforced, producing rapid learning but also quick extinction once reinforcement stops.

Graph Explanation:

• Behavior increases steeply and steadily as reinforcement is given every time.

• When reinforcement stops, the response drops off quickly.

📈 (Imagine a straight upward line during reinforcement, followed by a sharp drop once reinforcement ceases.)

Fixed Interval Graph: What Does It Look Like?

Explanation: Behavior increases as the set time for reward approaches, then drops right after the reward is given—forming a scalloped pattern.

📊 Graph Shape: “Scalloped curve” — slow responding after reinforcement, speeding up as the next interval nears.

positive reinforcement

Definition: Strengthening a behavior by adding something pleasant after it occurs.

Example: Giving candy to a child for finishing homework encourages them to do it again.

primary reinforcer

Definition: A reward that satisfies a basic biological need, such as food, water, or comfort.

Example: A hungry animal receives food as a reward for pressing a lever.

punishment

Definition: Adding or removing something to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

Example: Losing phone privileges after breaking curfew reduces future rule-breaking.

reinforcement

Definition: Any event that increases the frequency of a behavior it follows.

Example: A teacher praises a student for answering correctly, encouraging participation.

shaping

Definition: an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Example: Rewarding a dog first for sitting, then for lying down, and eventually for rolling over.