Intro to Body Organization and Cytology Vocabulary

Vocabulary flashcards covering structural levels of organization, body directional terms, macromolecules, homeostatic mechanisms, cell organelles, membrane transport processes, cellular respiration stages, and mitotic cell division based on lecture notes.

Anatomy

The study of body structures.

Physiology

The study of structure function.

Cells

The smallest living structures and functional units of the body.

Organelles

Microscopic structures within cells that perform specific cellular processes.

Tissue Level

A structural level of organization consisting of groups of similar cells performing common functions.

Organ Level

A structural level of organization composed of two or more tissue types performing specific functions.

Organ System Level

A structural level of organization consisting of related organs working together to achieve a common function.

Organismal Level

The highest level of structural organization where all body systems function interdependently.

Covalent Bond

A chemical bond formed when atoms share electrons.

Ionic Bond

A chemical bond formed when an atom donates electrons.

Ions

Atoms or molecules that have gained or lost electrons.

Cations

Positively charged ions, such as $\text{Na}^+$, $\text{K}^+$, and $\text{Ca}^{2+}$.

Anions

Negatively charged ions, such as $\text{Cl}^-$.

Electrolytes

Ions present in solution.

Solute

A substance, such as ions, wastes, gases, or hormones, dissolved in a solvent.

Solvent

The substance doing the dissolving in a solution, which is water in bodily fluids.

Biological Macromolecules

Large molecules necessary for life, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Polymer

A large molecule made of many repeating subunits.

Monomer

An individual subunit that bonds with others to form a polymer.

Carbohydrates

Sugars that serve as the primary energy source, categorised into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Lipids

Hydrophobic compounds consisting of a carbon backbone, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.

Proteins

Polymers made of strings of amino acid monomers folded into three-dimensional shapes that determine their function.

Nucleic Acids

Polymers composed of nucleotide monomers (sugar, phosphate, nitrogenous base) that store or transport protein instructions, comprising DNA and RNA.

Anatomical Position

The standard reference position standing with arms at the sides, palms, head, and feet all facing forward.

Anterior (Ventral)

Directional term meaning towards the front of the body.

Posterior (Dorsal)

Directional term meaning towards the back of the body.

Superior

Directional term used in the axial region meaning towards the top.

Inferior

Directional term used in the axial region meaning towards the bottom.

Superficial

Directional term meaning towards the outside of the body.

Deep

Directional term meaning towards the inside of the body.

Medial

Directional term meaning towards the midline of the body.

Lateral

Directional term meaning further away from the midline.

Proximal

Directional term meaning closer to an attached base.

Distal

Directional term meaning further from an attached base.

Axial Region

Anatomical region encompassing structures along the midsagittal axis, including the head, neck, and trunk.

Appendicular Region

Anatomical region encompassing structures attached to the axial region, specifically the upper and lower limbs.

Coronal (Frontal) Plane

A plane of section that divides the body into anterior and posterior portions.

Transverse Plane

A plane of section that divides the body into superior and inferior portions.

Sagittal Plane

A plane of section that divides the body into left and right portions.

Midsagittal Plane

A specific sagittal plane that splits the body into perfect left and right halves.

Serous Membranes

Membranes that envelop thoracic and abdominopelvic viscera to help reduce friction.

Pericardium

The serous membrane surrounding the heart.

Pleura

The serous membrane surrounding the lungs.

Peritoneum

The serous membrane surrounding the abdominopelvic organs.

Umbilical Region

The middle abdominopelvic region named for the umbilicus, containing the small intestines.

Epigastric Region

The abdominopelvic region located above the stomach region, containing the stomach.

Hypogastric Region

The abdominopelvic region located beneath the stomach region, containing the bladder.

Metabolism

The sum of all chemical reactions occurring within the body.

Anabolic Reactions

Chemical reactions that combine smaller molecules into larger ones, storing energy.

Catabolic Reactions

Chemical reactions that split larger molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy.

Homeostasis

A steady internal environment maintained through a collection of body set points.

Pathology

The study of disease, which represents a disruption of homeostasis.

Negative Feedback

A self-regulating homeostatic control mechanism where the stimulus and the result are opposites.

Positive Feedback

A homeostatic mechanism where the stimulus and result are the same, ending in a climactic event.

Plasma Membrane

The outer barrier of a cell separating intracellular fluid from extracellular fluid and regulating movement of substances into and out of the cell.

Transport Proteins

Plasma membrane proteins, such as channels, carriers, and pumps, that regulate movement of substances across the membrane.

Cell Surface Receptors

Plasma membrane proteins that bind specific chemical signaling molecules called ligands.

Identity Markers

Plasma membrane proteins that distinguish healthy cells from infected cells.

Enzymes

Proteins located on cell surfaces or internally that accelerate normal physiological activities by forming or breaking chemical bonds.

Anchoring Sites

Proteins that secure the cell's cytoskeleton to the plasma membrane.

Cell-Adhesion Proteins

Proteins that perform cell-to-cell attachments.

Nucleus

The control center of the cell enclosed by a nuclear envelope containing cellular DNA.

Cytoplasm

All cellular contents located between the plasma membrane and the nucleus, consisting of cytosol and organelles.

Mitochondria

The powerhouse of the cell responsible for conducting cellular respiration to produce ATP.

Ribosomes

Organelles responsible for assembling proteins.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

An organelle dotted with ribosomes that functions in protein assembly.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

An organelle lacking ribosomes that functions in lipid assembly.

Golgi Apparatus

An organelle that modifies and transports proteins and lipids.

Lysosomes

Membrane-bound packages of digestive enzymes that function as cellular stomachs.

Peroxisomes

Organelles that oxidize fatty acids, amino acids, and uric acid, creating hydrogen peroxide that is quickly degraded by internal enzymes.

Vesicles

Membrane-bound shipping containers that travel between components of the endomembrane system.

Passive Transport

Membrane transport moving materials down their concentration gradient without requiring cellular energy.

Active Transport

Membrane transport requiring cellular energy to move substances up their concentration gradient.

Simple Diffusion

Passive movement of small, nonpolar solutes directly through the phospholipid bilayer down a concentration gradient.

Facilitated Diffusion

Passive movement of larger or charged solutes across the plasma membrane utilizing a protein channel.

Osmosis

Passive movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from low solute concentration to high solute concentration.

Tonicity

The ability of a surrounding solution to change the volume or pressure of a cell by osmosis.

Primary Active Transport

Active transport directly utilizing ATP energy to move solutes up their concentration gradient.

Sodium-Potassium (Na+/K+) Pump

A primary active transport pump that moves $3\,\text{Na}^+$ out of the cell and $2\,\text{K}^+$ into the cell.

Secondary Active Transport

Transport dependent on primary active transport to set up gradients, harnessing solutes moving down these artificial gradients for energy.

Endocytosis

Vesicular active transport where a cell uses a vesicle to bring external material into the cell.

Exocytosis

Vesicular active transport where a cell uses a vesicle to expel internal contents out of the cell.

Cellular Respiration

The multi-step breakdown of glucose to produce cellular ATP energy.

Glycolysis

The anaerobic process occurring in the cytosol that breaks down glucose into $2$ pyruvate molecules and $2\,\text{ATP}$.

Kreb's Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

The aerobic process occurring in the mitochondria that processes pyruvate to yield $1\,\text{ATP}$, $3\,\text{NADH}$, $1\,\text{FADH}_2$, $\text{CO}_2$, and $\text{H}_2\text{O}$.

Electron Transport Chain

The aerobic stage of cellular respiration in mitochondria that uses $\text{NADH}$ and $\text{FADH}_2$ to yield $36+$ ATP.

Mitosis

The process of body cell division resulting in two genetically identical daughter cells containing $46$ chromosomes ($23$ pairs).

Prophase

The first phase of mitosis where duplicated DNA organizes itself, the nucleus breaks down, and spindle fibers appear.

Metaphase

The phase of mitosis where spindle fibers direct organized DNA to the cell midline.

Anaphase

The phase of mitosis where spindle fibers pull apart and separate identical DNA copies to opposite ends of the cell.

Telophase

The final phase of mitosis where DNA un-organizes, the nucleus reforms, and spindle fibers disappear.

Cytokinesis

The physical separation of the cell's plasma membrane into two distinct daughter cells, starting in anaphase and ending in telophase.