Ethics

Ethics and values

Values and ethics are closely related but are not the same. Values are beliefs that guide a person’s behaviors. They are very important and shape the perception of one’s life. They are different from person to person and serve as the foundation for moral reasoning. Ethics are standards of behaviour that guide a person’s decisions and what they consider to be morally right. Ethics is a framework for evaluating actions in terms of their outcomes. They are more specific than values and are often more practical.

Ethical Relativism

The idea that someone’s ethical beliefs don’t only depend on their culture but on the person themselves. It says that claim about morality are the moral beliefs of a culture or society. Every culture has moral standards and when raised within that culture you internalize those standards. Argument against saqy that is there is a set of universal moral values then it cannot change between cultures. Melville J. Herskovits was a supporter of ethical relativism. He said that no one set of moral standards are defined as valid and moral standards are just another form of tradition. Although a problem with this theory is that one can only critique their own cultures moral standards and not those of another because they are right too pointed out James Rachels.

Ethical Egoism

This theory says people only act morally when it is in their own best interests. So an action is good if it produces more good and less bad for me. Harry Browne argued for this theory by saying putting your own happiness below that of others is a false view. People who put their happiness first are happy. Kurt Baier argued against this theory saying that issues with this theory come from when people have opposing interests, like in a race where both of us cannot be happy because we can’t both win.

Utilitarianism

Bentham argued for the “Principle of Utility” which means an action is judged by its result. This is one of the most influential and common ethical theories. Bentham’s view was more hedonistic but John Stuart Mills developed the theory into what we today. He said happiness should be shared by the greatest number of people. He also says people act out of a general desire to do what is best for other people, a kind of higher purpose. Simply it is that the right choice is the one that makes the most people the most happy

Act Utilitarianism

This theory says the right action is the one that will produces the most amount of pleasure and the least amount of pain for the most people. It looks at the consequences of different choices and weighs them up based on their outcome. Example of man is accused of raping a woman, mob says they will kill people from his village if you don’t say he is guilty.

Rule Utilitarianism

Theory says we should use utilitarian principles to determine which moral rule should be followed. The rule that should be followed is the one that has the best consequences and will then determine the action that should be taken. There is evidence Mills took this approach. Example would be denting your friends car and either telling the truth or saying it was someone else. Problems come from promoting one rule over another and how that is decided.

Divine Command Theory

A non-consequentialist normative theory that says you should always do the will of God. There are two types of this theory. One find the commands of God in sacred texts and the other find them in human nature. Scriptural divine command theory does not promise a great outcome when making a choice, just that you should make it because its God’s will. Issues come from the fact that there are different religious texts so the rules are different along with the Euthrypho problem which is are the actions right because God commands them or is God commanding the actions because they are right.

Natural Law Ethics

The idea that humans should live according to nature. The Stoics followed this theory and believed there was a natural order put there by God that the human mind can discover. Following this natural order will make happy and flourish. Epictetus said our human nature tells us to accept what is true and reject what is fales so we will be lead to the right choice. Thomas Aquinas was a believer of this theory. He said that our reasons become clear to us once we realise our natural inclinations which will lead us to good choices and what God commands which is human life, family, knowledge and an orderly society. He argued suicide was immoral because it went against the human inclination to desire life. He also proposes the law of double effect which is for situations in which bad has to be done to avoid something bad. The idea here is that the good outcome needs to outweigh the bad action. Critiques say we are unable to trust our instincts because we do not know if it is going to lead to good, we can desire bad things.

Kant’s Categorical Imperative

Dentonology is an ethical theory that judges the morality of an action based on a set of rules. Kantian ethics focus on morals and duties rather than the consequences of an action that prioritizes happiness like utilitarianism. A decisions made in this framework would be a priori which means the reasoning comes from theoretical deduction. Kant believed good will is the only unquestionably good thing because it is good no matter the consequences. In ethics, duty is actions that come from moral obligation while inclinations are based on feeling. Categorical imperatives are moral commands that must be followed regardless of what you want or the circumstances. This theory is criticised for its rigidity and lack of real-world application.

Buddhist Ethics

Not a divine command theory because there is no God but still provides moral insights. Two key points about the Buddhist approach to ethics is that intentional actions are important because they create karma which are consequences. Also there actions are not isolated event, what you do influences what you become. The second point is that this kind of ethics is a form of wisdom not a set of obligations. It is wisdom about how to deal with fundamental problem in human life of suffering. In Buddhism there are four nobel truths. The first is about the problem of suffering, in the body and the mind. Suffering cannot be alleviated unless we know the truth, the second nobel truth is about the causes of suffering which the Buddha says is our craving for things. The third truth makes the point that craving is the fundamental cause of suffering. The fourth nobel truth says craving is eliminated through the eightfold path. To live this life there are five precepts a monk must follow. They are: against taking life, theft, lying, alcohol and sex.

Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics looks at character traits like courage, generosity and kindness. It asks what traits are good and what makes them good. Aristotle was one of the first to hold this view. His virtue ethics looked at what virtues are connected to happiness and are appropriate for humans. He said true happiness can only come from people fulfilling their true purpose and using your reason well. He saw a virtue as the ability to habitually respond to circumstances in the right way. He points out that having a theoretical knowledge of ethics, to be virtues you need to act that way. A virtue is being able to reason in your desires, actions and emotions.

Metaethics

Metaethics asks questions about questions using philosophical language, it asks if ethical statements are objectively true and if they are mind-dependant or independant. These moral statements fall into two categories, cognitivism and non-cognitivism. Cognitivism says that ethical langues express beliefs about how the world works. It aims to evaluate claims as true or false. Non-cognitivism says that ethical language does not describe the world and cannot be evaluated as true or false. It represents some other mental state which is debated upon.

Applied Ethics - Abortion

The topics involved in this issue are: the moral status of the fetus, right to life vs. bodily autonomy, moral absolutism vs. moral relativism, ethical theories, potential and future value, harm principle and justice, moral responsibility and causation and the role of the state and the law. The utilitarian position looks at the consequences for the mother, child and society. The kantian ethics perspective looks at treating humanity as an end for both mother and child. Virtue ethics focuses on compassion and moral virtues in making the decision. Natural laws looks at the preservation of life and is a common pro life argument. Metaethical perspectives include cognitivism vs. non-cognitivism and relativism vs. universalism.

Applied Ethics - Euthanasia

Looks at the questions of what is the right thing to do and why in terms of moral justification and ethical terms. In euthanasia there are ordinary and extraordinary means. Ordinary means are when treatment is available to that doesn’t cause a lot of pain that could help the person. Extraordinary means are when this is not available and methods or treatment are painful and unlikely to work. When a death happens naturally it means without human interference and no one really decides here as it is observed. Prolonging death is when artifice measures are used to prevent death like life support, artificial hydration or drugs. Autonomy is the capacity to make informed decisions for yourself about your life. Paternalism goes against autonomy as it interferes with someone’s decisions for their own good.

Applied Ethics - Poverty

Poverty is socioeconomic condition where people lack the financial resources to meet their basic needs. It is caused by lack of education, healthcare, unemployment and bigger economic inequality issues, social injustice and conflicts. It has far reaching effects, impacting health, education and wellbeing. it creates a cycle of disadvantage that is hard to break. Poverty is seen to be a wicked problem as it is a complex issue with no single solution because of it’s multiple factors. This brings up questions of justice and fairness along with the role of individuals in addressing inequalities. Poverty tourism is an issue in this. Some ethical issues come from: utilitarianism with maximising wellbeing and minimising suffering, Kantian ethics with duty and respect for people and virtue ethics with cultivating moral character.