Hebrew Bible Essay Questions

1. What are the main differences between the Jewish Hebrew Bible, the Catholic Old Testament, and the Protestant Old Testament? How can you explain these differences?

• The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) contains 24 books, arranged as Torah, Prophets, and Writings, finalized around the 2nd century CE.

• The Catholic Old Testament includes 46 books, incorporating deuterocanonical texts from the Greek Septuagint.

• The Protestant Old Testament has 39 books, rejecting the deuterocanonical writings as Apocrypha.

• These differences stem from Jewish reliance on the Hebrew canon, Catholic use of the Septuagint, and Protestant reformers’ return to Hebrew sources.

2. What are the main differences between Genesis 1 and Genesis 2, and how do biblical scholars interpret these differences?

• Genesis 1 presents a structured, seven-day creation by a transcendent God, linked to the Priestly source.

• Genesis 2 depicts a more personal God forming man and woman in a garden, tied to the Yahwist source.

• The differences reveal multiple traditions woven together, showing diversity in Israel’s theology.

• Scholars interpret them through the Documentary Hypothesis, seeing them as complementary rather than contradictory accounts.

3. What is the Documentary Hypothesis and why is it important for understanding the composition of the Hebrew Bible? Explain the J/E/D/P-sources?

• The Documentary Hypothesis, proposed by Julius Wellhausen in 1878, argues the Torah is composed from four main sources.

• The J source (Yahwist) emphasizes God as YHWH, vivid narratives, and originates from Judah.

• The E source (Elohist) uses Elohim for God, emphasizes prophecy, and originates from Israel.

• The D source (Deuteronomist) focuses on covenant loyalty, sermons, and centralized worship, tied to Josiah’s reforms.

• The P source (Priestly) stresses laws, rituals, genealogies, and order, reflecting exilic/post-exilic concerns.

• This theory is important because it explains contradictions, doublets, and varied theological emphases in the Torah.

4. Explain the significance of the Book of Exodus in the Hebrew Bible: What are the central events and themes of Exodus? Why is the Exodus story important for the identity formation of ancient Israel? How do scholars today evaluate the historical accuracy of the Exodus narrative?

• Central events include liberation from Egypt, the covenant at Sinai, and the building of the Tabernacle.

• Themes focus on deliverance, covenant, law, and God’s abiding presence with Israel.

• The Exodus story became Israel’s foundational identity marker, symbolizing freedom and divine election.

• Scholars note no direct archaeological evidence for the Exodus, though theories (Hyksos, Apiru, cultural continuity) suggest possible backdrops.

5. The Ten Commandments are often seen as a foundational legal and moral text in the Hebrew Bible. How do they compare to other ancient Near Eastern law codes, such as the Code of Hammurabi or other regional legal traditions? What could explain their differences?

• The Ten Commandments combine religious and moral laws, unlike Hammurabi’s primarily civil code.

• Both law codes claim divine sanction and function to regulate society.

• Hammurabi’s laws recognize class distinctions, while the Ten Commandments present equality before God.

• Differences may be explained by Israel’s monotheism and covenantal worldview, contrasting with Mesopotamian kingship authority.

6. Describe the different types of laws found in the Book of Exodus. What kinds of topics do these laws address, and why were they important for the ancient Israelite community? In your answer, discuss the role that law played in shaping Israelite society, values, and daily life.

• The Covenant Code (Exodus 21–23) contains laws about worship, slavery, property, violence, and justice.

• These laws combine moral, ritual, and civil regulations under divine authority.

• They aimed to shape Israelite society around justice, loyalty to God, and communal identity.

• Law functioned as both social order and covenant expression, binding the people to God and each other.

7. Explain the purpose of the sacrificial system in Leviticus. What kinds of sacrifices are described, and what roles did they play in Israelite religious and social life? In your answer, consider how sacrifice addressed issues of sin, community cohesion, ritual practice, and relationship with God.

• Sacrifices provided worship, thanksgiving, atonement, and purification for Israel.

• Burnt offerings symbolized total devotion, grain offerings expressed gratitude, and peace offerings created communal meals.

• Sin offerings sought forgiveness and purification from unintentional wrongdoing.

• Sacrifice built social cohesion by feeding priests and poor while reinforcing covenant relationship with God.

8. Leviticus presents a detailed vision of holiness and ritual purity, particularly in the Holiness Code. What do these laws tell us about the Israelite view of order, identity, and the sacred? In your essay, discuss the distinction between pure and impure, and explain why maintaining these boundaries was so important.

• Purity laws distinguished between clean and unclean in food, body, and daily life.

• The Holiness Code stressed “be holy, for I am holy,” linking morality and ritual.

• Maintaining boundaries expressed Israel’s identity as God’s chosen people set apart from neighbors.

• Purity symbolized order and sacredness, preserving access to God’s presence.

9. What is the Deuteronomic Code, and how does it differ from the legal collections in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers? In your answer, consider differences in tone, focus, and purpose. Why does Deuteronomy emphasize covenant loyalty, centralization of worship, and social justice?

• The Deuteronomic Code emphasizes covenant loyalty, centralized worship, and social justice.

• Unlike Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, it frames laws as Moses’ farewell sermons.

• Its tone is exhortative, warning against idolatry and stressing care for the poor and marginalized.

• It reflects Assyrian treaty influence but redefines loyalty to God instead of empire.

10. Who are the Levites according to Deuteronomy, and what is their role in Israelite society? How does their role compare to that of priests in other biblical texts? What does Deuteronomy say about their relationship to worship, sacrifice, and the central sanctuary?

• Levites were the priestly tribe, serving in temple worship and law instruction without land inheritance.

• Deuteronomy stresses their dependence on tithes and offerings from the community.

• Compared to other texts, Deuteronomy limits their authority, with prophets and covenant loyalty taking precedence.

• Their role reinforced the central sanctuary and maintained Israel’s covenantal order.

11. What is the Pentateuch, and what are its main functions and goals in the Hebrew Bible? Discuss its role as a combination of narrative, law, theology, and origin story. How does the Pentateuch shape Israel’s identity, religious worldview, and understanding of history? In your answer, also explain why these five books are often called the “Five Books of Moses”. How does this traditional title relate to the way the material is presented, and how does modern scholarship view the question of authorship and composition?

• The Pentateuch is the first five books of the Bible, combining narrative, law, and theology.

• It provides Israel’s origin story, covenant framework, and ritual regulations.

• Traditionally called the “Five Books of Moses,” though modern scholarship sees composite authorship.

• Its role shaped Israel’s identity as God’s chosen people and gave them a sacred history.

12. What is the main storyline of the Book of Joshua, and how do scholars interpret its historical reliability? Why might this conquest narrative have been important for Israel’s national identity and religious memory?

• Joshua leads Israel into Canaan, conquers cities, divides land, and renews the covenant.

• The conquest narrative portrays victories as dependent on obedience to God.

• Archaeology suggests a gradual settlement rather than swift conquest.

• The narrative reinforced Israel’s belief in divine promise and land identity.

13. Ancient Israelite society revolved around a ritual calendar that included many festivals to be celebrated during certain Sacred Times. Give me some examples of festivals, and explain the role they played in connecting religious practice, historical memory, agricultural cycles, and community identity.

• Passover commemorated liberation from Egypt while aligning with spring harvest.

• Shavuot (Weeks) marked wheat harvest and covenant renewal.

• Sukkot (Booths) recalled wilderness wandering and fall harvest.

• Festivals reinforced historical memory, agricultural cycles, and communal unity.

14. The Book of Judges often emphasizes religious decline, moral failure, and social chaos. What message is the text trying to convey about covenant failure, divine punishment, and the need for centralized leadership? How do stories like those of Deborah, Gideon, Samson, and Jephthah reflect these themes?

• Judges shows cycles of sin, oppression, deliverance, and relapse, highlighting Israel’s covenant failure.

• Stories emphasize that disobedience brings divine punishment and chaos.

• Figures like Deborah, Gideon, and Samson illustrate temporary deliverance but flawed leadership.

• The book points toward the need for centralized kingship to ensure order and covenant fidelity.