sociology theory and methods/ methods in context

consensus theories

argues that society is held together by a shared agreement on values and norms, leading to social order and stability

consensus theories: functionalism

functionalism is a theoretical perspective that views society as a complex system where different parts (institutions, roles, norms, etc.) work together to promote solidarity and stability. Functionalists see institutions like family, education, and religion as having clear functions that contribute to the smooth functioning of society

durkheims social facts

social facts are the shared beliefs, values, and rules of conduct that exist independently of individuals and exert social control over them. These "social facts" are the foundation of Durkheim's theory, which views society as a complex system where parts work together to maintain stability and solidarity

structural functionalism: solidarity/ stability

society as a complex system composed of interrelated parts, each with its own function, that work together to maintain stability and solidarity. society is held together by shared values, norms, and institutions, and that each part of society contributes to the overall functioning of the whole.

Social Solidarity: The degree to which individuals are connected to one another in a society and the extent to which they feel a sense of belonging and shared purpose. 

Social Stability: The maintenance of social order and the ability of a society to adapt and change without significant disruption. 

functionalism: parsons organic analogy

society is a complex system, similar to a human body, where various social institutions (organs) work together to maintain stability and function. Just as different organs have specific roles in the body's overall health, various institutions in society contribute to the overall well-being and order of the social system, creating an equilibrium.

Family: Provides socialisation and nurtures individuals, ensuring they learn the norms and values of society. 

Education System: Instills knowledge and skills, preparing individuals for social roles. 

Economy: Meets the material needs of society and provides resources. 

Government: Maintains order, enforces laws, and provides public services

functionalism: Merton's latent functions

understand the unintended and often unrecognized consequences of social structures and behaviours. These functions, unlike manifest functions (which are intended and recognised), are often overlooked or unintended outcomes that contribute to the stability or change within a social system.

examples:

Education: The manifest function of attending college is to acquire knowledge and skills for a specific profession. A latent function could be the development of social networks and relationships. 

Marriage: The manifest function of marriage is to form a family and provide companionship. A latent function could be the establishment of a social support system. 

Rain Dance: The manifest function of a rain dance is to produce rain. A latent function could be the strengthening of group identity and solidarity. 

conflict theories

a sociological framework that views society as a struggle between groups with competing interests and unequal access to resources. It emphasises that social order is maintained through dominance and power rather than consensus and conformity.

conflict theories: Marxism

Class Struggle: history is driven by class conflict, with the bourgeoisie and proletariat locked in a constant struggle. 

Exploitation:The bourgeoisie, who owns the means of production, extracts surplus value from the labour of the proletariat, creating a system of exploitation. 

Alienation:The proletariat are alienated from their labour, the products of their labour, and even their own humanity within the capitalist system. 

Revolution: internal contradictions of capitalism would lead to a revolution, where the proletariat would overthrow the bourgeoisie and establish a socialist or communist society. 

Ideology: bourgeoisie maintain their power through ideological control, using institutions like religion and education to suppress the proletariat's awareness of their own exploitation

structural theories Marxism

Focus on Structures: importance of social structures, such as the state, the economy, and ideology, in shaping society. 

Class Conflict: inherent conflict between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat as a driving force in social change. 

Economic Determinism: Structural Marxism suggests that the economic base (mode of production) of a society determines its superstructure (culture, institutions, etc.). 

Role of the State: Structural Marxists argue that the state serves the long-term interests of the bourgeoisie by regulating class conflict and maintaining the capitalist system. 

Ideology: Structural Marxists, influenced by Louis Althusser, role of ideology in maintaining class dominance and reproducing capitalist relations. 

Structural Causality: Structural Marxism, influenced by Louis Althusser, social structures have causal effects, meaning that certain social conditions are inevitable outcomes of structural forces. 

marxism key concepts

class struggle: fundamental conflict between bourgeoisie and proletariat driven by history, with revolutionary potential),

historical materialism: importance of economic factors in shaping history and society, societies progress through distinct stages (e.g., primitive communism, slave society, feudalism, capitalism, socialism, and communism) driven by changes in the means of production

critique of capitalism: alienating workers from their labour, the products, their workers. exploit workers by appropriating surplus value, the difference between the value workers produce and the wages they receive, internal contradictions- the tendency for profit rates to fall and the recurring crises of overproduction

Gramsci's humanistic Marxism

role of human agency and culture in shaping social change, moving beyond economic determinism to focus on the power of ideology and the active role of individuals in challenging the dominant order.

believed that the proletariat could achieve liberation by developing their own counter-hegemony, challenging the ruling class's dominance through cultural and intellectual means, rather than solely through economic struggle.

althusser repressive and ideological state apparatus

Repressive State Apparatus (RSA) and Ideological State Apparatus (ISA) are distinct but interconnected ways the ruling class maintains control over society.

RSA uses force and coercion, including the military, police, and legal system, to directly suppress dissent.

ISA, on the other hand, operates through cultural institutions like education, religion, and media, shaping people's beliefs and values to reinforce the ruling ideology

conflict theories: feminism

examines how gender shapes social structures and individual experiences, highlighting inequalities and challenging patriarchal systems. gender inequality across various aspects of society, including work, family, and culture, and seeks to create a more just and equitable world for all.

radical feminism

analyses society through the lens of patriarchy, viewing it as a system where men dominate and oppress women. advocate for a fundamental restructuring of society to eliminate this dominance, believing that male supremacy is the core of social inequality.

Catharine MacKinnon: legal scholar and feminist theorist who has worked on issues of sexual harassment, sexual violence, and pornography

criticisms: overemphasise the power of men and downplay the role of other factors, such as class or race, in shaping women's experiences

Marxists feminism

analyses women's oppression through a Marxist lens, focusing on the intersection of gender and class. capitalism is the primary source of female oppression, as it exploits women both in the workplace and in the home, contributing to the perpetuation of patriarchal structure, unpaid labour should be valued and compensated. 

Angela Davis: "Women, Race, and Class," book highlights how racism, sexism, and class inequality intersect to create unique challenges for women of colour. systems are intertwined and must be addressed together to achieve social justice. 

critiques: overemphasis on class, oversimplification of capitalism,

difference feminism

men and women possess fundamental differences in their nature, leading to distinct behaviours, values, and roles. Difference feminists believe that women should not strive to be like men but rather embrace and celebrate their unique characteristics, potentially leading to a pro-woman position

Julia Kristeva- women's experiences and perspectives are often marginalized or erased in patriarchal systems. focusing on "equality" can lead to the suppression of women's unique ways of thinking, feeling, and being

Criticisms of Difference Feminism: reduces individuals to a predetermined set of traits based on their sex. 

reinforce traditional gender roles and stereotypes 

fails to adequately address the complexities of gender identity and the ways in which it intersects with other social categories such as race, class, and sexuality

postmodern feminism

a branch of feminist theory that challenges traditional notions of gender and identity, arguing that these concepts are socially constructed and fluid rather than fixed and universal

Judith Butler:her work of Gender Trouble, challenges the notion of a fixed, natural gender identity, arguing that gender is a performance and a social construction. 

criticisms:

for its perceived lack of focus on political action and its tendency to relativise the experiences of oppression.

too abstract and that it undermines the importance of collective action and social change

liberal feminism

achieving gender equality through legal/ political reforms within the framework of democracy. individual rights and opportunities for both men and women, aiming to dismantle discriminatory laws and systems while viewing patriarchy as a system that can be transformed and improved.

John Stuart Mill and Harriet Taylor Mill, argued for equal rights for women, including suffrage and equal opportunities in education and employment 

criticisms: focus on individual agency and its tendency to ignore systemic inequalities and the complexities of gender relations.

overlooks importance of social structures, power dynamics, and intersectionality

social action theory: meads self concept

the self develops through social interaction and is not an innate entity but emerges from a dynamic interaction between the "I" and the "me". T our sense of self is formed through interactions with others, internalisation of social roles, and the ability to "take the role of the other". The "I" represents the individual's impulsive and spontaneous nature, while the "me" embodies the social self, reflecting how we perceive ourselves

max weber verstehen and the protestant work ethic

verstehen, "understanding" in German, the interpretive approach of trying to understand the meaning and subjective experiences of individuals and groups, rather than solely observing their behaviour.

Understanding the motivations behind actions: to understand why capitalism emerged, one must delve into the subjective meanings and motivations of individuals, especially those within Protestant communities. 

Interpreting the Protestant Ethic:

investigates how the Calvinist doctrine of predestination, created a need for individuals to seek signs of their salvation. 

The role of "calling":

Calvinists, seeking reassurance of their salvation, focused on worldly success and hard work, viewing it as a "calling" from God. 

capital accumulation:

wealth accumulation was seen as a sign of divine favour, rather than a vice. 

Capitalist spirit and religious values:

applying Verstehen, Weber demonstrates how religious beliefs, such as the Protestant ethic, influenced the development of a specific capitalist spirit that valued work, thrift, and the accumulation of wealth for its own sake. 

goffman's dramaturgical theory

views social interaction as a theatrical performance, where individuals act out roles to create specific impressions on their audience. This theory, developed by Erving Goffman, suggests that people's daily lives can be understood through the lens of theatre, with individuals playing different roles in various situations to manage how they are perceived

Becker's labelling theory

suggests that teachers' assessments and labels of students can significantly impact their future academic outcomes and self-perception. This theory proposes that these labels, whether positive or negative, can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where students internalise the labels and their subsequent actions align with the expectations associated with those labels. 

quantitative research

favoured by positivists because they are objective and numerical, which means data can be cross-examined to generate cause and effect relationships, and generalisations can be made.

laboratory experiments, field experiments, questionnaires, structured interviews and official statistics.

qualitative

favoured by interpretivists because they provide deep, subjective and meaningful insights into social behaviour.

unstructured interviews, participant observations and documents.

lab experiments

Favoured by positivists, lab experiments test hypothesise in a controlled environment where the researcher changes the independent variable and measures the effect on the dependent variable.

advantage: Highly reliable, identify cause and effect relationships

disadvanatges: highly artificial environment and may not reveal how people act in the real world,The Hawthorne effect .Ethical issues, Unrepresentative: small-scale, impossible to identify and/or control all the variables that might exert an influence on certain social issues

examples: Milgram Obedience Experiment:

investigated the extent to which people would obey authority figures, even if it meant causing harm to others

field experiments

take place in the real social world, whereby the sociologist either creates a situation or adapts a real-life situation to their research purpose. usually unaware of the research.

advanatges: less artificiality - real-world situations. Validity - people are unaware of the experimental situation

disadvanatges: Ethical issues - involves carrying out an experiment on people without their informed consent.Less control over variables. Limited application

examples: stanford prison experimnet: simulated a prison environment and assigned participants to roles of prisoners and guards. abandoned after six days due to increasingly aggressive behavior and the guards' abuse of their authority.

questionairres

Favoured by positivists, written or self-completed questionnaires are a form of social survey - notably, via post, email or handed out in person. list of pre-set questions that are closed-end questions with pre-coded answers

advanatges: Practical -cheap and quick. Quantifiable data. Representative - large sample .Reliable - the questionnaire can be easily repeated due to how the questions are pre-set. respondent is under no obligation

disadvantages: low Response rate .Low validity - more willing to lie. Unrepresentative .The interviewer isn’t there to ask follow up questions and explain questions

structured interviews

The positivist favoured: face-to-face or over-the-phone delivery of a questionnaire. list of pre-set questions designed by the researcher and asked of all interviewees in the same way.

advantages: training is easy and cheap Representative. Results are easily quantifiable because they use closed-ended questions with coded answers. Reliable - the structured process provides a ‘recipe’ for reproducability

disadvanatges: people may lie ​

official statistics

Official statistics are quantitative data collected by government bodies. This method is favoured by positivists because data is quick, cheap and easy to access, and it covers a wide range of social issues.

advantages: Practical - Cheap and easy. easy access. cross-examine-deduce cause and effect relationships. Collected at regular interviews, find trends, Representative, Reliable

disadvantages: The government collects so misinterpreted by sociologists. Definitions may be different. Unreliable

unstructured interviews

The interpretivist -favoured mainly asks open-ended questions that produce qualitative data rich in meaning. A strong relationship is built between the interviewer and the interviewee, which means the data is more likely to be valid.

advantages: Flexibility, ​​ Valid due to unfixed questions People can be more truthful.

disadvantages:

Practical - Time-worthy, ​hard to train, ​Un-representative - small sample. ​​

ethical- research published cant harm the interviewee

theoretcial- ​hard to quantify, Not reliable

example; William Labov's research on language and cultural identity, Black children responded more freely when interviewed in an informal, relaxed setting by a Black researcher

participant observation

the researcher joins in the activities of the group they are researching.

advantages: Valid-natural and authentic setting,​Valid - data generate is richly detailed and offers insight into social behaviour.

disadvantages: Unreliable - open-ended and subjective

Practical issues- time consuming, difficult to gain access, Hawthorne effect

Theoretical issues- more scientific to be detached from the subject, could be unrepresentative

​ Ethical issues - it is difficult to ensure the anonymity of participants, deception of subjects, researcher may get too involved

examples: tea rooms Laue Humphreys

personal documents

These can take the form of diaries, memoirs, autobiographies and letters. 

advantages: Valid - Written for personal purposes so will have a high degree of validity and provide an in-depth and genuine insight into people's attitudes.​ Practical - cheap. ​Can be used to confirm or question other interpretations and accounts.

disadvantages: some groups don’t produce personal documents so their views aren't represented while those with literacy skills may be over-represented.​ written with an audience in mind, may affect what is recorded. Personal bias.

historical documents

advantages: They allow comparisons over time (for example birth, death and marriage rates).​ useful when assessing the outcomes of various social policies (Eg. raising the school leaving age).

disadvantages: Un-representative -documents may have been lost. validity may have been written selectively.​ authenticity of a document is open to question as it might not have been written by the person it is attributed to. ​

longtitudial survey-

follow the development of the same subject over a long period of time

reliability and validity

reliability- If you repeat the experiment you get the same results

validity- The findings of the experiment gain a true picture of what is being studied.

triangulation

the use of two or more research methods in a single piece of research to ensure reliability and validity of evidence

learning to labour

paul willis- unstructured interview and participant observation of working class boys "learning to labour": pupil subculture

What are the five areas of context in education?

1. teachers

2. Pupils

3. parents

4. classrooms

5. schools

Give some practical strengths of studying pupils.

• Pupils are required to be in school so they are likely available.

• high amount of secondary data available on pupils.

Give some practical issues with studying pupils.

• Gaining access to pupils is difficult as they are a vulnerable group and many checks to gain permission.

• surrounded by gatekeepers (teachers, parents)

• Younger pupils may have lower reading comprehension so may struggle to understand the researcher and not engage properly in research

• WC and MEG pupils may use different speech codes to researchers (Bernstein) so may struggle to understand and answer.

• Age of researcher may prevent them gaining rapport with students or being inconspicuous.

• Timetables limit when research can be done, don't want to disturb education.

Give some ethical strengths of studying pupils.

• A large amount of gatekeepers means informed consent will be more secure as many people have approved of research.

• Research may help understand issues in school and solve them.

Give some ethical issues of studying pupils.

• Lower reading comprehension and lack of understanding may mean informed consent cannot be gained.

• Researchers and pupil have an unequal power dynamic so children may feel uncomfortable or pressured into research against their will.

• Certain topics may upset pupils

• Pupils may not challenge statements due to fear of adults.

• Researcher's status may make children lie to please adults out of fear.

Give some theoretical strengths of studying pupils.

• Interpretivists would like methods gaining valid data and insight into the lives of children.

• Positivist like large availability of quantitative secondary data through school records and statistics.

Give some theoretical issues of studying pupils.

• Lack of understanding may cause pupils to give invalid answers and invalid data.

• Gatekeepers of teachers may give access to only certain pupils meaning an unrepresentative sample will be used.

• Pupils exhibit the Hawthorne effect if they know a researcher is present producing invalid data.

• MC white students are closer to the ideal pupil (Becker) so are more likely to engage than WC and MEG. This gives skewed unrepresentative data.

• Unlikely to gain access to all pupils in one school or pupils from more than one school

Give some practical strengths of studying teachers.

• More likely to be sympathetic to research as academics.

• Have higher levels of education and therefore understanding so will be able to properly engage with research

• Have a good insight into the education system as actively involved

Give some practical issues of studying teachers.

• Higher authority teachers act as gatekeepers and may give access to some teachers and prevent access to others.

• Have a legal duty to children that may protect them giving truthful answers or valuable date.

• Are overworked so may be reluctant to engage with another task and add to their workload.

• Researchers will stand out as new in classrooms and staff rooms so may struggle to gain an accurate picture of teachers.

Give some ethical strengths of researching teachers.

• They have high levels of understanding so are more likely to give informed consent.

• Require less levels of consent than children as are not considered vulnerable in the same way.

Give some ethical issues of studying teachers.

• May be pressured to participate by higher up teachers

• May be under pressure to research and give a certain picture of the schools to keep their job and research could risk them loosing this

• May be a power dynamics between researcher and lower down teachers (classrooms TAS)

• May feel criticised by certain kinds of questions such as those related to discrimination and criticism of teaching.

• Results may get them in trouble.

• Anonymising may not be effective as people could figure out who was involved anyway.

Give some theoretical strengths of studying teachers.

• Proper understanding means they can give valid answers.

Give some theoretical issues of studying teachers.

• May lie to give socially desirable answers because they're scared of losing their jobs

• May demonstrate the Hawthorne effect if they know they're being watched to give the researchers the result they think is right.

• Schools only allowing access to certain teachers gives an unrepresentative sample and unreliable data.

• May feel threatened by presence of research and try not to engage limiting what answers they get and holding back research.

Give some practical strengths of studying parents.

• Can give an outsider's perspective on schools.

• If researchers go directly to parents they don't have to go through the security checks of school giving easier access.

Give some practical issues of studying parents.

• If research is sent home from school with children it is likely to get lost

• If done through a school access may be difficult as schools will want to allow only parents who will give a positive impression to participate.

• WC and MEG parents may have a different speech code to researcher limiting understanding.

• MEG parents may have a language barrier limiting understanding.

• MC parents are more available than WC as less likely to do shift or night work so difference in availibility

• Parents powerful as consumers (marketisation) further showing why schools may limit access.

Give some ethical strengths of studying parents.

• Are adults so can give informed consent.

• Can be anonymised.

Give some ethical limitations of studying parents.

• Different educational levels may mean they don't understand research

• Research questions may be sensitive and make parents feel ashamed.

• May feel pressured by school to participate limiting voluntary aspect of consent.

• May be an imbalance of power between parents and researchers.

• The answers given by parents may reflect on children and their experiences in school putting them at risk

• Anonymisation may not prevent people from working out who gave what answers so doesn’t stop parents experiencing negative consequences

Give some theoretical strengths of studying parents.

• Can give a valid insight into schools from an outside perspective

• Many can be contacted through questionnaires and surveys which positivists would like.

Give some theoretical issues with studying parents.

• Lack of understanding from language barriers or different speech codes may produce invalid answers to questions.

• May lie to impression manage as don't want to appear as bad parents giving invalid data

• May be easier to gain participation of white MC parents as they are more likely to have pro school attitudes and want to participate

• Schools may give access to parents that they know will provide research that shows the school positively creating skewed results

Give some practical strengths of studying classrooms.

• Easy to observe as are generally simple settings with two roles only (teacher and pupil)

• Pupils are required to be in school full time and are usually in classrooms so plenty of time to observe

Give some practical issues of studying classrooms.

• Many gatekeepers and legal barriers to cross to gain access to classrooms

• Consent is required from many so time consuming to get research approved.

• Researcher may stand out and be obvious as a new person making it hard to blend in and see real conditions in the classrooms.

• Schools and classrooms are not in operation all year round limiting chances for research to take place

• Higher up teachers (gatekeepers) may only allow access to certain classrooms or give a very small sample to reduce disturbance

Give some ethical strengths of studying classrooms.

• As there are many gatekeepers and checks

Give some ethical issues of studying classrooms.

• Presence of researcher may induce stress in pupils and teachers.

• Students are a vulnerable group so informed consent may be compromised due to age or lack of understanding.

• Headteachers or higher ups may put pressure on teachers to participate and give a positive impression putting them at risk from research

• Publication of research even if anonymous

• May be a power dynamic between researcher and teacher and pupils creating unhealthy environment

Give some theoretical strengths of studying classrooms.

• Gives qualitative data high in validity which interpertivists like

Give some theoretical issues of studying classrooms.

• Only having access to some classrooms

• Difficult to get quantitative data so positivists don't like.

• Presence of researcher may cause different behaviour due to Hawthorne effect making data inaccurate to actual behaviour

• Pupils and teachers may nor be able to share true thoughts making much of the data based on researcher assumption and inaccurate.

Give some practical strengths of studying schools.

• Law requires pupils are in school for a lot of the year

• Large amount of high quality secondary data.

Give some practical issues of studying schools.

• Access will be hard to gain as require consent of all teachers

• Not always open all year round and pupils may be on break when researcher wants to carry it out.

• Records may be hard to access due to confidentiality.

• Head teachers act as gatekeepers and may refuse access in fear of ruining school's reputation. or only allow access to certain areas

Give some ethical strengths of studying schools.

• As so much consent is required it is unlikely research will lack informed consent.

• Data can be anonymised.

Give some ethical issues of studying schools.

• Pupils are a vulnerable group and may be at risk when research is carried out.

• Researcher may witness discrimination (class gender)

• As informed consent is required from so many people it may be difficult to properly obtain.

• There may be an imbalanced power dynamic between the researcher and those in school that affects the research.

• Will be hard to properly anonymise.

Give some theoretical strengths of studying schools.

• Interpertivists may like the highly valid

• High availability of secondary data is liked by positivists who will like the quantitative data.

Give some theoretical weaknesses of studying schools.

• As access may only be given to certain areas in the school

• May demonstrate Hawthorne effect as are aware of researcher being there giving data that is inaccurate to how they actually behave.

• Differences in speech codes between the researcher and those in school may mean there is a lack of understanding resulting in invalid data.