Basics of Research Methods 1-10

Experimental Design

Helps us to determine causality (cause and effect)

Standardization

Everything in the experiment stays the same.

Between-Subject Design

 Different participants test each condition. One group does Condition A, a completely different group does Condition B .

Within-Subjects Design

The same participants undergo all conditions. The same person does Condition A, then later does Condition B .

Carryover

The effect of the first condition is still there.  (e.g., the alcohol from Condition 1 is still in their system during Condition 2).

Pre-test Sensitization

Taking the test early might tip the participant off to what the study is about, changing their behavior.

Factorial Design

Using two or more independent variables at the same time. E.g. alcohol AND gender

Experimenter Bias

 The researcher’s own gender, race, or expectations can unintentionally influence the data.

Demand Characteristics

Participants figure out the hypothesis (cues in the room, instructions) and try to be "good subjects" by acting how they think they should.

Matched Pairs

A solution for Between-Subjects designs where participants are paired based on specific traits (like age or weight) to ensure groups are equal, rather than relying solely on randomization

Counterbalancing Effect

A solution for Within-Subjects designs to prevent order effects. Half the participants perform the conditions in one order (A then B), and the other half do the reverse (B then A).

Placebo Effect

When a participant improves simply because they believe they received effective treatment, even if they received a fake one

Double-Blind Experiment

An experiment where neither the participant nor the researcher knows who is receiving the real treatment vs. the placebo. This prevents researcher bias and placebo effects.

Population

The entire group you want to observe and draw conclusions for. (e.g., "All university students in Hungary").

Sample

Selected from the units

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the demographics (age, gender, ethnicity) of the population.

Random Sampling

A method where every member of the population has an equal chance of being picked. This is the best way to get a representative sample.

Direct Observation

Watching and recording behavior objectively (e.g., with a stopwatch or camera).

Observer Effect

People act differently when being watched.

Observer Bias

Researchers see what they expect to see

Questionnaires / Surveys

Participants self-report their attitudes or behaviors.

Social Desirability Bias

People fake good to look better.

Psychological Tests

Standardized measures of traits (e.g., IQ, personality).

Case Studies

In-depth investigation of a single individual. Might be hard to generalize the findings.

Mean

The average

Median

The middle score

Mode

The most frequent score

Variability

How spread out is the data.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

Measures the strength of a relationship between two variables. Can be Positive or Negative. It does not imply CAUSATION.

Induction

Moving from specific Data (observations) to form a general Theory.

Deduction

Moving from a general Theory to specific Hypotheses (predictions) that can be tested with data.

Theory / Թեորեմ

 A system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations. A good theory must be testable. Sleep facilitates the consolidation of memory

Hypotheses

A specific, tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is a prediction from a theory.

Variable

Any measurable condition, event, characteristic, or behavior that is controlled or observed in a study.

Identify the Research Question

Start with an initial observation or question.

Formulate a Hypotheses

Translate a theory into a testable prediction. You must define variables clearly (Operational Definition).

Select Research Design

Choose the method (Experiment, Case Study, Survey, etc.).

Data Collection

Start the study and gather information.

Analyze Data

Use statistics to interpret the results.

Publication

Report findings in a scientific journal for peer review.

Replication

Other researchers try to repeat the study to see if the results hold true.

Correlational / Descriptive Research Design

describing behavior or finding links between variables (e.g., Case Studies, Surveys, Naturalistic Observation).

Experimental Research Design

Manipulating a variable to see if it causes a change in another.

Independent Variable

The variable you change/manipulate.

Dependent Variable

The variable you measure (the outcome)

Experimental Group

The ones that get the treatment,

Control Group

The ones that do not get the treatment (for comparison)

Psychological Ethics

Moral principles guiding a psychologist’s general conduct or practice.

Research Ethics

Moral principles specifically guiding researchers from the start to the end of a study.

Ethical Dilemma

A conflict between different principles of moral conduct.

Ethical Codes

Principles, requiring researchers to consider circumstances (a "no harm" approach). Two people can interpret a situation differently and still be ethical.

Maximizing Benefit, Minimising Harm

Research must serve a beneficial purpose while avoiding harm to participants, whether social, financial, or psychological.

Respect for people’s rights, autonomy, and dignity

Researchers must respect participants' privacy, autonomy, and diversity (age, gender, culture). They must avoid biases and clearly explain the aim and procedures.

Scientfic Value

Research must contribute to knowledge. Poorly designed research is unethical because it is a waste of resources

Integrity (բարեվարքություն)

Researchers must be honest, accurate, and trustworthy.

Justice

Everyone should have equal access to the benefits of psychology, no biases.

Informed Consent

An agreement to participate in research with full knowledge of the context and the participant's rights.

Anonymity

No personal data (names, birthdates) is collected. The participant cannot be identified.

Confidentiality

Data is collected but kept private and not published in an identifiable way.

Voluntary Participation

Participants can refuse to take part or withdraw at any stage, even after the research is finished.

Deception

The act of convincing of one or many recipients of untrue information.

Naturalistic Observation

form of involuntary participation where subjects are observed in their natural environment without knowing it. It is ethical only if they cannot be identified and the information is public.

Debriefing

The process of informing participants after a study about its true purpose, methods, and any deception used.

Physiognomy

The early, unscientific practice of judging a person's character or personality based solely on their outward appearance (face, body).

Phrenology

The pseudoscience claiming that "bumps" on the skull correspond to specific brain functions and personality traits.

James McKeen Cattell

The psychologist who coined the term "Mental Test" and emphasized the need for large sample sizes to get accurate data.

Alfred Binet

He moved testing away from sensory tasks (reaction time) to "Higher Mental Processes" (reasoning/judgment) to identify children with learning difficulties.

Army Alpha

The group intelligence test designed for literate soldiers during WWI.

Army Beta

The group intelligence test designed for illiterate or non-English speaking soldiers during WWI (using mazes/pictures).

Woodworth Personal Data Sheet

The first formal personality test, designed to screen WWI soldiers for "shell shock" (emotional instability)

Projective Tests

Assessments like the Rorschach or TAT that use ambiguous stimuli (inkblots, pictures) to reveal unconscious conflicts and motives.

Rorschach test

Projective psychological test where people describe what they see in inkblots, revealing hidden thoughts and emotions.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT

Shows people pictures and asks them to make up stories, which reveal their underlying motives, feelings, and conflicts.

Big Five (OCEAN)

The five main dimensions of personality: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.

Chronological Age

Actual age

Mental Age

The age level at which an individual performs intellectually.

Authority

Believing something because an "expert" or figure of power said so (teachers, parents, politicians).

Empiricism

Learning through direct observation and experience.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out and focus on information that supports one’s existing beliefs, while ignoring or discounting contradictory evidence.

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to stubbornly hold on to a belief even when strong counter-evidence shows it to be false.

Availability Heuristics

A mental shortcut where people judge how likely or common something is based on how easily examples come to mind.

Anchoring Heuristics

The First information we have about the case determines our views and thinking on the case.

Post-Hoc

Objectivity

Representing real truth despite your opinion.

Determinism

The scientific assumption that events (and human behavior) have logical causes and do not just happen randomly.

Discoverability

The belief that we can actually find and understand these causes using scientific methods.

Pseudopsychology

Any claim or practice that looks scientific (uses jargon) but lacks evidence, reliable methods, or scientific support.