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Encode
when our sensory receptors send impulses that are registered by neurons in our brain
Store
retain the information in our brain for some period, ranging from a moment to a lifetime, similar to saving information in our computer’s hard drive.
Retrieved
upon demand when it is needed, similar to opening up a document or application from the hard drive.
Anne Treisman’s feature integration theory
you must focus attention on complex incoming auditory or visual information in order to synthesize it into a meaningful pattern.
Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart’s levels-of-processing theory
how long and how well we remember information depends on how deeply we process the information when it is encoded.
Shallow processing
we use structural encoding of superficial sensory information that emphasizes the physical characteristics, such as lines and curves, of the stimulus as it first comes in.
Semantic encoding
associated with deep processing, emphasizes the meaning of verbal input.
Deep processing
occurs when we attach meaning to information and create associations between the new memory and existing memories (elaboration).
self-referent encoding
making it personally meaningful
Atkinson–Shiffrin three-stage model of memory
describes three different memory systems characterized by time frames: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory.
Sensory memory
external events fro our senses are held there just long enough to be preceived.most information here is lost
Iconic memory
visiual stimulus lasts for less than a second
echoic memory
lasts for about 4 second,just long enough fornus to hear flow of information.
Selective attention
the act of focusing on a particular object for some time while simultaneously ignoring distractions and irrelevant information.Listening to what your friend is saying when you are in a noisy room.
Automatic processing
is unconscious encoding of information about space, time, and frequency that occurs without interfering with our thinking about other things.
Short-term memory (STM)
can hold a limited amount of information for about 30 seconds unless it is processed further. phone number.
rehearse
we can hold information in STM longer in we repeat it many times. and additional rehearsal when you already know info but just repeating it is called overlearning
Chunking
can increase capacity of STM by this grouping information into meaningful units
Alan Baddeley’s working memory
involves much more than chunking, rehearsal, and passive storage of information. consists of phonological loop which briefly stores information about language sounds with an acoustic code , visuospatial working memory stores visual and spatial info from sensory memory incuding imagery or mental pictures. and last one is central executive activity which intergrates inormation from the phonological loop When you engage in activities that require planning, organization, time management, decision-making, and goal-setting, you're using your executive function.
Long-term memory (LTM)
is the relatively permanent and practically unlimited capacity memory system into which information from short-term memory may pass.
Explicit memory:
also called declarative memory, is our LTM of facts and experiences we consciously know and can verbalize.
Semantic memory
facts and general knowledge
episodic memory
personally experienced events.
Implicit memory
Implicit memory is also known as unconscious or automatic memory, which refers to the information that we do not store purposely and is unintentionally memorized; we cannot consciously bring that memory into awareness.
Procedural memories
are tasks that we perform automatically without thinking, such as tying our shoelaces or swimming.
prospective memory
is memory to perform a planned action or remembering to perform that planned action
Hierarchies
are systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific classes.
Concepts
mental representation of related things may represent physical objects, events, organism, attributes
Prototypes
which are the most typical examples of the concept.
Semantic networks
are more irregular and distorted systems than strict hierarchies, with multiple links from one concept to others.
Schemas
are preexisting mental frameworks that start as basic operations and then get more and more complex as we gain additional information.
Script
is a schema for an event.for example becasue we have script for elementary school,even when you have nevr been to one we expect it to have teachers, young students, a principal…
Connectionism
theory states that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections between neurons, many of which work together to process a single memory.
Long-term potentiation or LTP
involves an increase in the efficiency with which signals are sent across the synapses within neural networks of long-term memories.strengthening of neural connections at synapses.
Flashbulb memory
a vivid memory of an emotionally arousing event, is associated with an increase of adrenal hormones triggering release of energy for neural processes and activation of the amygdala and the hippocampus involved in emotional memories.
thalamus
The role of the thalamus in memory seems to involve the encoding of sensory memory into short-term memory.
Anterograde amnesia
the inability to put new information into explicit memory; no new semantic memories are formed. result of destruction of hippocampus
retrograde amnesia
involves memory loss for a segment of the past, usually around the time of an accident, such as a blow to the head.
cerebellum
involved in implicit memory
reconstruction
retrieval of memories that can be distorted by adding, dropping, or changing details to fit a schema.often info we try to remember has missing pieces
Hermann Ebbinghaus
experimentally investigated the properties of human memory using lists of meaningless syllables.
He drew a learning curve.
He drew a forgetting curve that declined rapidly before slowing.
Serial position effect
When we try to retrieve a long list of words, we usually recall the last words and the first words best, forgetting the words in the middle.
Primacy effect
refers to better recall of the first items, thought to result from greater rehearsalRecency effect
Recency effect
refers to better recall of the last items.
priming
is activating specifit aassociations in memoy
massed practie
cramming the memorization of information or the leadering of skills into one session
Method of loci
uses association of words on a list with visualization of places on a familiar path.
Peg word mnemonic
requires us to first memorize a scheme. such as one is a bun two is a shoe
Context-dependent memory
Our recall is often better when we try to recall information in the same physical setting in which we encoded it, possibly because along with the information, the environment is part of the memory trace
Mood congruence
we can recall experiences better that are consistent with our mood
State-dependent
things we learn in one internal state are more easily recalled when in the same state again.
Proactive interference
occurs when something we learned earlier disrupts recall of something we experience later. trying to remember a new phone may be disruped by the memory of the old phone number
Retroactive interference
is the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
repression
unconscious forgetting of painful memories occurs as a defense mechanism to protect our self-concepts and minimize anxiety.
confabulation
filling in gaps in memory by combining and substituting memories
Misinformation effect-loftus car
occurs when we incorporate misleading information into our memory of an event.
Misattribution error
Forgetting what really happened, or distortion of information at retrieval, can result when we confuse the source of information—putting words in someone else’s mouth—or remember something we see in the movies or on the Internet as actually having happened.-source amnesia
phonemes
basic sound units no meaning
morphemes
smallest meaningful units of speech
syntax
regulate orger in which words can be combined
semantics
The set of rules that enables us to derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences is
babbling
from 4 month old baby is production of phonemes
holophrase
around age of 1 babies use one word to convey meaning
telegraphic speech
age of 2 . two-word sentaces “eat cookie”
overgeneralization/overregularization
at age of 3 children begin to follow the rules of grammar without any instruction “i goed to the store”
Noam Chomsky
says that our brains are prewired for a universal grammar of nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, negations, and questions
Benjamin Whorf: linguistic relativity hypothesis
proposed a radical hypothesis that our language guides and determines our thinking.
He thought that different languages cause people to view the world quite differently.
Metacognition
thinking about how you think
Trial-and-error approach
This approach involves trying possible solutions and discarding those that do not work.
Inductive reasoning
involves reasoning from the specific to the general, forming concepts about all members of a category based on some members, which is often correct but may be wrong if the members we have chosen do not fairly represent all of the members.
Deductive reasoning
involves reasoning from the general to the specific.
Fixation
is an inability to look at a problem from a fresh perspective, using a prior strategy that may not lead to success.
Functional fixedness
a failure to use an object in an unusual way.
Amos Tversky and Nobel Prize winner Daniel Kahneman studied how and why people make illogical choices.
mental set
tendency to approach the problem in the same way that has been successful previously
Availability heuristic
estimating the probability of certain events in terms of how readily they come to mind.The availability heuristic works by prioritizing infrequent events based on recency and vividness. For example, plane crashes can make people afraid of flying
Representative heuristic
Representativeness heuristics are biased judgments made in everyday life. An example of a representativeness heuristic is thinking that because someone is wearing a suit and tie and carrying a briefcase, that they must be a lawyer, because they look like the stereotype of a lawyer
Framing
refers to the way a problem is posed.
Anchoring effect
is this tendency to be influenced by a suggested reference point, pulling our response toward that point.rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered (the “anchor”) when making decisions.
Confirmation bias
is a tendency to search for and use information that supports our preconceptions and ignore information that refutes our ideas.
Belief perseverance
s a tendency to hold onto a belief after the basis for the belief is discredited.
belif bias
the tendency for our preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, making illogical conclusions seem valid or logical conclusions seem invalid.
Overconfidence bias
is a tendency to underestimate the extent to which our judgments are erroneous.
Convergent thinkers
use problem-solving strategies directed toward one correct solution to a problem. logical and more comfortable with familiar information and proven facts.
Divergent thinkers
produce many answers to the same question, characteristic of creativity.
Psychometricians
are involved in test development in order to measure some construct or behavior that distinguishes people.
Standardization
is a two-part test development procedure that first establishes test norms from the test results of the large representative sample that initially took the test and then ensures that the test is both administered and scored uniformly for all test takers.
Norms
are scores established from the test results of the representative sample, which are then used as a standard for assessing the performances of subsequent test takers; more simply, norms are standards used to compare scores of test takers.
Aptitude tests
are designed to predict a person’s future performance or to assess the person’s capacity to learn
achievement tests
are designed to assess what a person has already learned.
who measured psychomotor tasks to gauge intelligence, reasoning that people with excellent physical abilities are better adapted for survival and thus highly intelligent.
James McKeen Cattell
brought Galton’s studies to the United States, measuring strength, reaction time, sensitivity to pain, and weight discrimination, using the term mental test.
Alfred Binet
was hired by the French government to identify children who would not benefit from a traditional school setting and those who would benefit from special education.
He collaborated with Theodore Simon to create the Binet–Simon scale, which he meant to be used only for class placement.
Binet believed that as we age, our knowledge of the world becomes more sophisticated, so most 6-year-olds answer questions differently than 8-year-olds.
Children were given a mental age or level based on their test responses.
When a 6-year-old and an 8-year-old have mental ages 2 years below their chronological ages, it can be misleading.
The younger child would lag behind peers more.
German psychologist William Stern suggested determining a child's intelligence by comparing mental age (MA) to chronological age (CA
standford binet intelligence scale
child’s mental age divided by his her chronological age multiplied by 100
David Wechsler: developed another set of age-based intelligence tests: the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) for preschool children, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) for ages 6 to 16, and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS ) for older adolescents and adults.
Intellectual disability: Test takers who fall two deviations below the mean have a score of 70
included comprehension, vocebulary, information, similarities,arithamtic,digit span and performance scale,block design
Adaptive behavior
is expressed in conceptual skills, social skills, and practical skills.
g-factor
it's the idea that people who are good at one type of mental task are likely to be good at others as well. So, if someone scores high on a test of math, they're also likely to do well on a test of language or reasoning.
savants
mentally retarded have a specific exceptional skill
theory of multiple intelligences
logical-mathematical, verbal-linguistic, spatial
Interpersonal
is used to describe things that involve interaction and relationships between people
Note 
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