Chapter 2 Understanding and Applying Theories of Career Development

___________________________ theory points to the importance of early life experiences in career development

Anne Roe's

____________________________ theory acknowledges the various personal (needs, values, abilities) and situational (peer groups, family, labor market) elements that influence career development.

Donald Super's

______________ theory addresses how sex-role stereotyping and social class influence the career aspirations of both men and women.

Linda Gottfredson's

__________________________ typology arguably provides the most useful framework for understanding and predicting individual behavior (job satisfaction, job performance, and occupational stability) within work environments

John Holland's

Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma (1951) viewed the developmental process as spanning three stages:

(a) fantasy (birth to age 11); (b) tentative (ages 11 to 17); and (c) realistic (ages 17 to early 20s).

Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma (1951) theorized that four factors __________________________________________________________ converged to shape a person's career decisions.

individual values,

emotional factors,

amount and kind of education, and

effect of reality through environmental pressures

Super (1990) developed a segmental theory describing three key aspects of career development:

1) life span,

2) life space, and

3) self-concept.

________________________________ translates the three theory segments into career practice to help people articulate their career concerns, examine their life-role salience, and clarify their self-concepts.

The C-DAC model

Super used the term ______________ to refer to the career decision-making readiness of children and adolescents.

career maturity

We use the term _________________________ rather than career maturity when referring to an adult’s career decision-making readiness.

career adaptability

Super identified a sequence of developmental tasks that people typically encounter and related them to stages and substages of career development, as follows:

· growth (childhood),

· exploration (adolescence),

· establishment (early adulthood),

· maintenance (middle adulthood),

· disengagement (late adulthood).

In the ___________________ stage, young people use occupational and self-information acquired in the growth stage to learn more about the world of work and begin to clarify what kind of work they might enjoy.

crystallization

__________________________refers to the need to understand the total constellation of career concerns the person is experiencing at any point in time.

Status

The simultaneous combination of life roles we play constitutes the ___________

lifestyle

The "simultaneous combination of life roles we play constitutes the lifestyle; their sequential combination structures the life space and constitutes the ____________.

life cycle.

The total structure is the ______________ (Super, 1980, p. 288).

career pattern

The salience people attach to their constellation of life roles defines what Super referred to as _______________________________

life structure.

The _____________________________ of Super's theory acknowledges that people differ in the degree of importance they attach to work.

life-space segment

Super noted that people tend to play nine major roles during their lives:

(1) son or daughter, (2) student, (3) leisurite (a term coined by Super), (4) citizen, (5) worker, (6) spouse or partner, (7) homemaker, (8) parent, and (9) pensioner.

Super also contended that life roles are generally played out in specific theaters. These theaters are

(1) home, (2) school, (3) workplace, and (4) community.

Super (1963) defined self-concept as a

"picture of the self in some role, situation, or position, performing some set of functions, or in some web of relationships" (p. 18).

The primary emphasis of the C-DAC model (and the traditional focus of career counseling) is on helping clients cope with concerns in the ________________ of the life-span and life-space segments of Super's theory.

exploration stage

Identifying each client's constellation of ________________ is the crucial first step in constructing appropriate career interventions

developmental task concerns

The Adult Career Concerns Inventory (ACCI) measures career concerns related to

the exploration, establishment, maintenance, and/or disengagement stage(s).

___________________________________________ is a useful assessment for determining whether high school and college students have the information they need to make informed career decisions

The Career Development Inventory (CDI)

______________________________________ measures the relative importance of five life roles (student, worker, citizen, homemaker, and leisurite) in three dimensions, one behavioral and two affective.

The Salience Inventory

_______________________________ measures 21 intrinsic (e.g., creativity, altruism) and extrinsic (e.g., economic rewards) values that people hope to express in their life roles.

The Values Scale (VS)

A ____________________ provides a tool for tracking career decisions across generations and identifying sources of a person’s career beliefs and life themes.

genogram

In the _____________________, clients use their understanding of life-role salience as the foundation on which they base the clarification and articulation of their vocational identities and life-role scripts.

C-DAC model,

For Super, vocational identities can be clarified using two methods:

· the actuarial method (Super, 1954, 1957) and

· the developmental method (Super, 1954, 1961).

The ___________________________ relates to the trait-and-factor approach of using test scores to predict future occupational performance and satisfaction.

actuarial method

Super also described this as the Thematic-Extrapolation Method

the developmental method

Jepsen (1994) has noted that the developmental or thematic-extrapolation method contains three steps:

1. Analyze past behavior and development for recurring themes and underlying trends.

2. Summarize each theme and trend, taking into account the other themes and trends.

3. Project the modified themes and trends into the future by extrapolation. (p. 45)

The actuarial and developmental methods may be incorporated into career counseling by using Super's (1957) ________________________________________________________________________.

cyclical model of nondirective and directive methods.

Super (1957) described the cycles of career counseling as follows:

1. Nondirective problem exploration and self-concept portrayal (the client tells his or her story)

2. Directive topic setting, for further exploring

3. Nondirective reflection and clarification of feeling for self-acceptance and insight

4. Directive exploration for factual data from assessment, occupational data, extracurricular experiences, grades, and so forth, for reality

5. Nondirective exploration and working through of attitudes and feelings aroused by reality testing

6. Nondirective consideration of possible actions, for help in decision

Essentially, the career counseling model articulated by Super emphasizes helping clients to

clarify and articulate their self-concepts and implement them in salient life roles.

Reviewing literature pertaining to Super's Work Importance Study led Niles and Goodnough (1996) to three conclusions.

1. First, life-role salience and values must be viewed within specific developmental and cultural contexts.

2. Second, in diverse settings and with different groups, women and men ranked the importance of various life roles and values differently.

3. Third, in order to facilitate their clients' career development, practitioners must attend to life-role salience and values issues in career counseling.

Roe (1956) identified three main kinds of child-rearing environments:

emotional concentration, avoidance, and acceptance.

Roe (1956) developed an _____________________________________ comprising eight fields based on arts and entertainment and general culture.

occupational classification system

It is during this stage that children develop their "tolerable-sextype [sic] boundary" (Gottfredson, 2005).

Stage Two: Orientation to Sex Roles

___________________________________ describes the degree of fit between an individual’s personality type and current or prospective work environment.

Congruence

To distinguish congruence from Holland’s other constructs, students often find it helpful to view the u and e in congruence as indicative of the relationship between

self (you) and the environment.

The highest level of congruence occurs when there ______________

is a direct correspondence between workers' personality types and their work environments (e.g., investigative personality types in investigative work environments).

Incongruence occurs when _________________________________

people are in environments that do not match their personality types (e.g., a social type working as a computer programmer).

The lowest level of congruence exists when workers _______________________

workers are in environments opposite their personality types on the hexagon (e.g., a social type in a realistic work environment).

The primary goal of career counseling is to help clients identify and connect with ___________________________________

congruent work environments.

The six points of Holland's hexagonal model are _________________________________________

realistic (R), investigative (I), artistic (A), social (S), enterprising (E), and conventional (C).

Holland (1973) referred to the degree of distinctness among types in someone's personality profile as ____________________________________

"differentiation."

The degree of relatedness within types is referred to as _______________________

consistency.

The primary function of consistency in counseling is to _______________________

foster awareness.

example: clients with low consistency (a realistic-social personality type) must be aware that it may be difficult to find an occupational environment that allows them to express the diverse aspects of their personalities.

Vocational identity is defined as

the "possession of a clear and stable picture of one's goals, interests, and talent" (Holland, 1985a, p. 5).

_______________________, _________________________________, ______________________, and ______________________ are the key theoretical constructs used to link Holland's theory to practice.

Congruence, differentiation, consistency, and vocational identity

_____________________________________________ is the most widely used interest inventory, is available in different versions based on reading level (SDS Form E), setting (SDS CP, Corporate Version), and language spoken by the respondent.

The Self-Directed Search (SDS) (Holland, 1994)

Lack of differentiation may occur because

(a) clients lack exposure to activities across Holland environments,

(b) they have trouble making decisions,

(c) they have multipotentiality, or

(d) they are depressed.

Elevated and undifferentiated SDS scores may indicate

that a client has multiple interests and competencies, not decision-making problems.

_______________________________________________ measures the respondent's awareness of and ability to specify his or her interests, personality characteristics, strengths, and goals with reference to career choices.

The Vocational Situation (MVS) Vocational Identity (VI) scale

_________________________________________________ measures the respondent's need for occupational information.

The MVS's Occupational Information (OI) scale

Gottfredson and Holland (1996) also created the ______________________________________ for classifying work environments according to Holland typology.

Position Classification Inventory (PCI)

_____________________________________________________________ uses individual worker judgments to classify the person's work environment,

The Position Classification Inventory (PCI)

John Krumboltz (1928-2019) and his colleagues developed a learning theory of career counseling comprising two distinct parts:

· The first focuses on explaining the origins of career choice and is labeled the social learning theory of career decision making (SLTCDM) (Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1996).

· The second focuses on career counseling and is labeled the learning theory of career counseling (LTCC) (Krumboltz & Henderson, 2002; Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1996).

Learning theory of career counseling (LTCC) is based on the application of ___________________ social learning theory to career decision-making.

Bandura's (1977, 1986)

_____________________________________________ describes the factors influencing people's career decisions.

The social learning theory of career decision making (SLTCDM)

_______________________ describes what counselors can do to help them make effective career choices.

The learning theory of career counseling (LTCC)

The SLTCDM identifies four factors that influence how people make career decisions:

1. GENETIC ENDOWMENT AND SPECIAL ABILITIES.

2. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND EVENTS.

3. INSTRUMENTAL AND ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING EXPERIENCES

4. TASK-APPROACH SKILLS.

Genetic endowments are inherited qualities such as

sex, race, and physical appearance.

Special abilities such as intelligence, athletic ability, and musical and artistic talents result from

the interaction of genetic factors and exposure to selected environmental events.

Factors in this category are generally outside our control and include a variety of cultural, social, political, and economic forces.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND EVENTS.

_______________________________________________ occur when a neutral stimulus is paired with a positive and/or negative stimulus or consequence

Associative learning experiences

Instrumental learning experiences involve

antecedents, behaviors, and consequences.

________________________________ include the genetic endowments, special abilities, and environmental conditions and events previously discussed as well as the characteristics of a particular task or problem

Antecedents

Task-approach skills also include a person's

work habits, mental set, emotional responses, cognitive processes, and problem solving.

Four factors that influence our beliefs about ourselves (e.g., what we are good at, what our interests are, what we value) and our beliefs about the world (e.g., hard work always pays off, accountants are nerdy, counselors value altruism over economic reward):

1. SELF-OBSERVATION GENERALIZATIONS. Overt or covert statements evaluating our actual or vicarious performance, or self-assessments of our interests and values, are defined as self-observation generalizations (Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1996).

2. WORLDVIEW GENERALIZATIONS. Likewise, generalizations about the nature and functioning of the world (e.g., “it’s not what you know, it’s who you know”; “it’s better to try and fail than to not try at all”) are formed from learning experiences. The accuracy of worldview generalizations is variable and dependent on the validity of the learning experiences shaping them.

3. TASK-APPROACH SKILLS. Task-approach skills influence career decision-making and are outcomes of learning experiences that shape a person’s career development. Task-approach skills critical to career development are those involved in decision making, problem-solving, goal setting, information gathering, and values clarifying.

4. ACTIONS. Learning experiences eventually lead people to take actions related to entering a career. These actions include applying for a job, entering a training program, applying to college and graduate school, changing jobs, and taking other steps to progress in one’s career.

___________________________ career decision making and are outcomes of learning experiences that shape a person's career development.

task-approach skills

Task-approach skills critical to career development are those involved in

decision making, problem solving, goal setting, information gathering, and values clarifying.

SLTCDM

Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making

The SLTCDM suggests that career decision making is

"influenced by complex environmental factors, many of which are beyond the control of any single individual" (Krumboltz, Mitchell, & Gelatt, 1976, p. 75).

The strength of SLTCDM is that it provides

a description of factors influencing career decision making and identifies their outcomes.

LTCC

Learning Theory of Career Counseling

Counselors use LTCC to help clients:

(a) acquire more accurate self-observation generalizations,

(b) acquire more accurate worldview generalizations,

(c) learn new task-approach skills, and

(d) take appropriate career-related actions.

Krumboltz (1996) divides career development interventions into two categories:

1) developmental/preventive and

2) targeted/remedial.

Developmental and preventive interventions include

career education programs, school-to-work initiatives, job club programs, study materials, and simulations.

The Career Beliefs Inventory (CBI) contains 96 questions and 25 scales divided into five categories:

1) My Current Career Situation,

2) What Seems Necessary for My Happiness,

3) Factors That Influence My Decisions,

4) Changes I Am Willing to Make, and

5) Efforts I Am Willing to Initiate.

skills that clients must develop to exploit unplanned events

Among them are developing and maintaining curiosity, persistence, flexibility, optimism, and a willingness to take risks (Mitchell et al., 1999)