Health Psychology: Chapter 2- Part 2

Digestive System

Food is first lubricated by saliva in the mouth, where it forms a soft, rounded lump called a bolus. Through the esophagus by means of peristalsis. Then t the stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and it enters as feces into the rectum which leads to expulsion of solid waste

Peristalsis

a unidirectional muscular movement toward the stomach

Stomach

Produces various gastric secretions, including pepsin and hydrochloric acid, to further the digestive process

Small Intestine

Absorption takes place, which produces enzymes that complete the breakdown of proteins to amino acids

• Parasympathetic activity speeds up metabolism

Large Intestine

Storage organ for he accumulation of food residue and helps reabsorption of water

Pancreas

Contains enzymes that break down proteins, carbs, and fats. Produces insulin, which facilitates the entry of glucose into bodily tissue

Liver

Produces bile that helps break down fats

• Bile stored in the gallbladder and enters the duodenum as needed

Disorders of Digestive System

Gastroenteritis, Diarrhea, Dysentery, Peptic Ulcer, hepatitis, and appendicitis

Gastroenteritis

Inflammation of the lining of the stomach and small intestine

• Caused by excessive amounts of food/drink, contaminated food/water, or food poisoning

• Symptoms appear approximately 2-4 hours after ingestion and include vomiting, diarrhea, cramps, and nausea

Diarrhea

Watery and frequent bowel movements occurs when the lining of the small and large intestines cannot properly absorb water or digest food

Dysentery

Similar to diarrhea except that mucus, pus, and blood are also secreted

• Caused by protozoan that attacks the large intestine or by a bacterial organism

• Rarely life threatening in industrialized countries; in developing countries among most common causes of death

Peptic Ulcer

Open sore in the lining of the stomach or duodenum

• Results from hypersecretion of hydrochloric acid and occurs when pepsin digest a portion of the stomach wall or duodenum

Appendicitis

Occurs when waste and bacteria accumulate in the appendix

Hepatitis

means “inflammation of the liver” and the disease produces swelling, tenderness, and sometimes permanent damage

Gut microbiome

Includes, fungi, viruses and bacteria

• Disturbances have been linked with a variety of physical conditions including, inflammatory bowel disease, asthma, obesity, type 2 diabetes, CVD and autoimmune disorders

• Influenced by environmental and lifestyle factors particularly diet and stress

Renal System

Consist of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra

Kidneys

Regulation of bodily fluids and produce urine

Ureters

Contains smooth muscle which contracts causing peristaltic waves to move urine to the bladder

Urethra

Conducts urine from the bladder out of the body

Urinary System

Regulates bodily fluids by removing surplus water, surplus electrolytes, and waste products generated by the metabolism of food, and surplus acids

Renal System Disorders

Most common are urinary tract infections

• Women are especially vulnerable

Nephrons

Basic structural and functional unit of the kidneys

Reproductive System

Development is controlled by the Pituitary Gland

Anterior Pituitary Lobe

Produces the gonadotropic hormones, which control the development of the ovaries and testes

Ovaries

• Females have the located in the pelvis

• Each month ovaries release an ovum (egg), which is discharged at ovulation into the fallopian tube. If the ovum is not fertilized by sperm it remains in the uterine cavity for about 14 days and then flushed out of the system during menstruation

• Produces estrogen and progesterone

Estrogen

Leads to secondary sex characteristics in females including breast and the distribution of body fat and hairs

Progesterone

Is produced in the second half of the menstrual cycle to prepare the body for pregnancy, declines if pregnancy does not occur

Testes

Produces testosterone under control of the anterior pituitary lobe

• Brings about sperm production and secondary sex characteristics like growth of beard, deep voice, body hair, skeletal and muscular growth

Disorders of Reproductive System

STDs are the most common and problematic

• Includes herpes, gonorrhea, syphilis, genital warts, chlamydia, and AIDs

Others for women include: endometriosis and vaginitus, cysts and fibroids. Menopause is not one- its when a womans reproductive life ends

Endometriosis

Pieces of the endometrial lining of the uterus move into the fallopian tubes or abdominal cavity, grow and spread to other sites

Fetus

Starts life as a single cell, which contains the inherited information from both parents

Nucleus

Where genetic material is in the form of 46 chromosomes

• Two are sex chromosomes- one X from mom and an X or Y from dad

Genetic Disorders

Alzheimer’s, cystic fibrosis, and huntington’s disease have a genetic basis

Gene Expression

Process by which the genetic information is turned into a function

Health Psychologists and Genetics

• Should people be alerted to genetic risks

• Genetic Counseling- helping people decide whether they should be screened and how to cope if they test positive

Direct transmission

Bodily contact- handshaking, kissing, and sexual intercourse

Indirect transmission

Microbes are passed via airborne particles, dust, water, soil, or food. Ex Influenza

Biological Transmission

A transmitting agent, like mosquito, picks up microbes, changes them into a form conducive to growth in the body and passes them onto a human. Ex: Yellow Fever

Mechanical Transmission

Passage of microbe to a person by means of a carrier that is not directly involved in the disease process. Dirty hands, bad water, rats, mice, flies can be implicated

Infection

Once a microbe reaches the body it penetrates into bodily tissue via skin, throat, and respiratory tract, digestive tract, or genitourinary tract.

• Whether the microbes gain foothold to produce this depends on:

  • The number of organisms

  • The virulence of the organisms

  • The bodies defensive capacities

Virulence

Determined by aggressiveness (ability to resist bodies defense) and toxigenicity (ability to produce poisons)

Course of Infection

• Incubation Period

• Nonspecific Symptoms

• Acute Phase

• Period of Resolution

Incubation Period

Time the infection is contracted and the time the symptoms appear

Nonspecific Symptoms

(maybe) precedes onset of the disorders. The immune system an initial response to the pathogen and releasing cytokines that coordinate immune and behavioral response

Acute Phase

Illness and Symptoms are at their height

Period of Resolution

Organisms are expelled from the mouth and nose in saliva and respiratory secretions and the digestive and genitourinary system in feces and urine

Immunity

The bodies resistance to invading organisms

Natural Immunity

Passed from mother to child at birth (temporary) or through disease (measles, have it once and unlikely again)

Artificial Immunity

Acquired through vaccinations and inoculations

Non Specific Immune Mechanisms

General set of responses to any kind of infection or disorder

Specific Immune Mechanisms

Always acquired after birth, fight particular microorganisms and their toxins, by infection or vaccinations

• Slower and more specific than natural immunity

Granulocytes

Largest group of cells involved in natural immunity

• Includes neutrophils

Neutrophils

Congregate at the sites of injury or infection and destroy pathogens by ingesting them or releasing toxic substances

Macrophages

Important cell in natural immunity that release cytokines that lead to inflammation and fever and promote wound healing

Natural Killer Cells

Involved in natural immunity and they recognize “nonself” material and lyse (breakup and disintegrate) those cells by releasing toxic and substances

Phagocytosis

Process by which certain white blood cells (phagocytes) ingest microbes

• Overproduce when there is a bodily infection, so large numbers can be sent to the site to ingest foreign particles

Antimicrobial Substances

Chemicals produced by the body that kill invading microorganisms. Ex: Interferon, hydrochloric acid

Humoral Immunity

Directed against extracellular pathogens mediated by B lymphocytes

Cell Mediated Immunity

Involving T lymphocytes from the thymus gland, is directed against intracellular pathogens

Immune System Disorders

AIDS and Autoimmunity

AIDs

Progressive impairment of immunity

Autoimmunity

Occurs when the body attacks the bodies own tissues

• Ex: Type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid Arthritis, Inflammatory bowel disease and lupus

Autoimmune Disease

The body fails to recognize its own tissues and produces antibodies to fight it