AP Rhetorics and Literary Terms

Ad Hominem

An argument based on the failings of an adversary rather than on the merits of the case; a logical fallacy that involves a personal attack.

Adjective

The part of speech (or word class) that modifies a noun or a pronoun.

Adverb

The part of speech (or word class) that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb.

Allegory

The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.

Alliteration

The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words. Although not frequently in the MC section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.

Allusion

A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or a work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.

Ambiguity

The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase,sentence, or passage.

Analogy

A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.

Antecedent

The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences.

Antithesis

The opposition or contrast of ideas; the direct opposite.

Aphorism

A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb) an aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point.

Apostrophe

A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. Many apostrophes imply a personification of the object addressed

Appeal to authority

A fallacy in which a speaker or writer seeks to persuade not by giving evidence but by appealing to the respect people have for a famous person or institution

Authority to ignorance

A fallacy that uses an opponent's inability to disprove a conclusion as proof of the conclusion's correctness.

Argument

A course of reasoning aimed at demonstrating truth or falsehood.

Assonance

The identity or similarity in sound between internal vowels in neighboring words.

Asyndeton

The omission of conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses (opposite of polysyndeton).

Atmosphere

The emotional nod created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently, atmosphere foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood.

Caricature

A verbal description, the purpose of which is to exaggerate or distort, for comic effect, a person's distinctive physical features or other characteristics

Chiasmus

A verbal pattern in which the second half of an expression is balanced against the first but with the parts reversed.

Circular argument

An argument that commits the logical fallacy of assuming what it is attempting to prove.

Claim

An arguable statement, which may be a claim of fact, value, or policy.

Clause

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. an independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author subordinates one element and not another. You should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing.

Coloquial/ism

The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.

Conceit

A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. a conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made.

Concession

An argumentative strategy by which a speaker or writer acknowledges the validity of an opponent's point.

Confirmation

The main part of a text in which logical arguments in support of a position are elaborated.

Conjunction

The part of speech that serve to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.

Connotation

The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions or attitudes.

Denotation

The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid or any emotion, attitude, or color.

Dialect

A regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, and/or vocabulary.

Dictation

Related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author's diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain), and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author's purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author's style.

Didactic

From the Greek, didactic literally means "teaching." Didactic words have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principle.

Encomium

A tribute or eulogy in prose or verse glorifying people, objects, ideas, or events

Epiphora/Epistrophe

The repetition of a word or phrase at the end of several clauses

Epitaph

A short inscription in prose or verse on a tombstone or monument. A statement or speech commemorating someone who has died: a funeral oration

Ethos

A persuasive appeal based on the projected character of the speaker or narrator.

Euphemism

From the Greek for "good speech," euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor to ironic understatement. Saying "earthly remains" rather than "corpse" is an example of euphemism.

Exposition

A statement or type of composition intended to give information about (or an explanation of) an issue, subject, method, or idea

Extended metaphor

A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work

Fallacy

An error in reasoning that renders an argument invalid

False dilemma

A fallacy of oversimplification that offers a limited number of options (usually two) when, in fact, more options are available

Figurative language

Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.

Figure of speech

A device used to produce figurative language. many compare dissimilar things. Figures of speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.

Generic conversations

This term describes traditions for each genre. these conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or a autobiography and political writing. on the AP Language exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writer's work from those dictated by convention.

Genre

The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific and nature writing. There may be fiction or poetry, but it is less common.

Hasty generalization

A fallacy in which a conclusion is not logically justified by sufficient or unbiased evidence.

Homily

This term literally means "sermon" but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

Hyperbole

A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (The literal Greek meaning is "overshoot.") Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony. The opposite of hyperbole is an understatement.

Imagery

The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman's cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. an author may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. in addition, this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. on the AP exam, pay attention to how an author creates imagery and to the effect of this imagery.

Induction

A method of reasoning by which a rhetor collects a number of instances and forms a generalization that is meant to apply to all instances