Global Health and Human Development- Chapter 8 questions and answers

Developed countries

A country that has progressed adequately with regard to economic, mortality and demographic indicators

Developing countries

A country that has not progressed adequately with regard to economic, mortality and demographic indicators

Economic characteristics of developed countries

.Wide range of industries

.Many opportunities for global trade

.High average incomes

.Low international debt

Social characteristics of developed countries

.Gender equality

.Low birth rate

.High levels of employment

.High levels of education

.Social security systems

.Developed health systems

.Access to technology

.Developed legal systems

.No history of colonisation

Environmental characteristics of developed countries

.Safe water and sanitation

.Access to food

.Adequate housing

.Adequate infrastructure

The WHO mortality strata

The WHO classifies countries according to mortality strata.

The WHO has classified its member states into five mortality strata.

The WHO mortality strata

All countries -Very low child mortality >Very low AM (A)

-Low child mortality >Low AM (B)

>High AM (C)

-High child mortality >High AM (D)

>Very high AM (E)

Child and adult mortality in reference to the WHO mortality strata

CHILD: refers to mortality rates of children (both sexes) under 5 years (U5MR).

ADULT: refers to mortality rate of males aged between 15

and 59.

Example of countries in the Mortality strata

(Strata: A,B,C,D,E)

A= Australia, Israel, UK, Canada, Cuba, USA

B= China, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Indonesia, Mexico

C= Russia, Ukraine

D= Afghan, Iraq, Morocco, Pakistan, Sudan, Yemen, Peru

E= Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, South Africa, Swaziland, Uganda, Zimbabwe

Human development

Is about creating environments in which people:

> can develop to their full potential and lead productive, creative lives in accord with their needs and interests.

> have access to education

> have access to a decent standard of living

> participate in the life of the community

Sustainability

Meeting today's needs without creating problems or depleting resources for future generations

>Economic: capacity of future generations to earn an income. EG: governments accumulating foreign debt

>Social: Same access to "social resources" such as human rights, political sustainability and education EG: Funding education

>Environmental: How natural resources are used\. EG: fishing and overfishing

EXAMPLE QUESTION:

Using an example, explain why sustainability is an important consideration in the development of a population

ANSWER:

Many developing countries rely on the natural resources of their country, eg. Logging. If a country over-logs, they're not leaving the resources for the future generations which makes it unsustainable

Human development

In order to improve human development, people need to build certain capabilities and freedoms, such as:

. lead long and healthy lives

. have access to knowledge

. participate in the community and their life decisions

. have resources needed for a decent standard of living

The Human Development Index

Uses four indicators to create an index that estimates the level of human development in different countries.

1. LIFE EXPECTANCY(how long a person can expect to live, it is the number of years of life remaining to a person at a particular age): Health dimension2. MEAN YEARS OF SCHOOLING(average number of years of education achieved by those 25 years or over): Education dimension

3. EXPECTED YEARS OF SCHOOLING(the number of years of education expected for a child of school entrance age): Education dimension

4. GROSS NATIONAL INCOME PER CAPITA(the overall income of a country after expenses owing to other countries have been paid, divide by population of the country): Living standards dimension

Elements of sustainable programs:

+ Appropriateness

+ Affordability

+ Equity

Appropriateness

Means that that the implemented program addresses the specific needs of a targeted community or population. This requires the donor country or organisation to carefully consider the available data to ensure that the proposed programs clearly address the priority concerns of the community

Appropriateness

It's important that these are taken into consideration:

. Involve the people

. Choose the right aid to reach poor people

. Focus on involving and educating women

. Focus on education

. Ensure programs are culturally appropriate

Affordability

People living in poverty do not have the money to access programs and resources. People with little money are unlikely to access health-related programs if there is a cost involved. Organisations responsible for the implementation of programs must consider this.

Equity

Equitable programs address any barriers that may prevent vulnerable groups (women, disabled, those living in remote places, extreme poverty) accessing the required resources. This can be done through:

. creating policies that act to improve and protect the environments in which vulnerable groups live (slums)

. funding the most urgent needs of vulnerable groups

. providing education for vulnerable groups

. developing programs in urban slums and in rural and remote areas

. ensuring health care is provided based on clinical needs as opposed to the ability to pay

Similarities/ differences in health status and human development between developing countries and Australia

. Life expectancy: has increased in most countries over time. Developing countries are more susceptible to health issues and generally experience fluctuations than developed countries (Australia). EG: Africa- decrease in life expectancy due to AIDS

. Burden of disease: Even though the proportion of deaths by non communicable diseases is lower in developing countries compared with Australia, it is important top remember that overall mortality rates are significantly higher in developing countries. Communicable diseases generally have a large impact on health in developing countries (HIV and tuberculosis).

Similarities/ differences in health status and human development between developing countries and Australia cont.

.Mortality and morbidity: The U5MR varies but is higher than those in developed countries. Malnutrition is a underlying factor contributing to the high rates of mortality and morbidity. This results in undernourishment and increases the risk of communicable diseases.

.Adult MR: Adult mortality is due to the impact of lifestyle factors such as: tobacco smoking, excessive alcohol consumption. Adult MR usually increase when the level of development decreases. Although communicable diseases (HIV and AIDs) contribute to differences in mortality rates in adults in developed and developing countries, non communicable diseases (cancer, heart disease) are also high in developing countries, creating a double burden.

Other causes in developing countries: pregnancy and childbirth

Income

Money received, especially on a regular basis, for work or through investments

GNI (Gross National Income)

Relates to the amount of income generated in a given year after expenses owing to other countries have been paid. It is a reflection of the wealth of a country and indicates how much money is available to spend of services and infrastructure. The level of GNI affects access to clean water, sanitation, health services and social security nets (pensions, welfare and disability payments). In developing countries, it is common for a few people to have control of most of the wealth, leaving a majority of the country with living standards well below the wealthy few. In Australia, the variation in how health is distributed is smaller.

Poverty

It is defined in the terms of income. Measured by:

. those living on less than US $1.25 per day (absolute or extreme poverty)

. those living on less than 50 percent of their countries average income (relative poverty)

Poverty impacts on health and human development through:

. higher rates of malnutrition

. higher rates of maternal mortality

. higher U5MR

. greater gender imbalances in education, income and living standards

. lower levels of literacy

Gender equality

The state in which access to rights or opportunities is unaffected by gender.

In many cultures men have more power and control than women. This typically can lead to a disadvantage in the economic, political, social, educational and health domains. Australian women generally have the same opportunities for education, employment and community participation as men do, which increases the level of human development.

Examples of how gender inequalities impact on women's health

. 2/3 of the 775 million people worldwide who lack literacy skills are female-often end up in jobs which are low paid/ dangerous (prostitution)

. 300 000 women die each year from pregnancy complications

. women may be last fed and may not receive enough nutrients (leading to malnutrition)

. men are the sole decision makers in many countries due to gender norms. Women are not able to make decisions that affect their lives.

. women are expected to abide by their father's or husband's decisions- violence may be a result if they challenge this authority

Peace and political stability

Australia generally experiences peace, but in many developing countries, are currently experiencing war or civil conflict. Because Australia doesn't share its boundaries with other countries, the risk of conflict is reduced, whereas many other countries often face border disputes.

Effects of war on health and human development

. loss of lives

. limited access to food, clean water and health care

. malnutrition is increased

. injuries and infections are left untreated- impacting health status

. sanitation and electricity facilities can be destroyed

. physical injuries

. higher maternal and infant mortality

. increases in outbreaks of communicable diseases (typhoid, dysentery and cholera)

. mental health is affected-reduces standard of living

. women at higher risk of rape and abuse (lack of protection from rival forces)

. families left without an income earner

Political stability can impact on H&HD by:

. breakdown of law and order

. trade restriction and economic turmoil

. unemployment

. disruption to education

. lack of healthcare

. human rights abuses

Access to healthcare

Many governments in developing countries do not have enough money to provide health care for their people. Has a direct effect on the health of the population and means only those who can afford to pay for health care can receive treatment. High levels of disease prevent many children from accessing education and developing to their full potential, which affects human development levels.

Australia takes health care for granted as it's so easily accessible.

Education

it promotes literacy, which can lead to a higher socioeconomic status (stable income and employment). This improves access to food, shelter and healthcare. Education can prevent AIDs due to the knowledge given about it.

Women are often most disadvantaged with regard to education- educated women are more likely to have educated children and fewer children.

In developing countries, many governments cant afford to provide education for their people (often only the wealthy can afford for their children to go to school), whereas in Australia, school is compulsory for children aged 6-15.

Physical environment

. Access to water and sanitation: Lack of sanitation infects water sources and leads to an increase in infectious diseases

. Housing: In developing countries, housing is usually inadequate and can lead to ill health. Location of housing can influence exposure to violence, crowding, excessive noise which impacts on quality of life and human development.

. Physical infrastructure: Usually of poorer quality in developing countries than developed countries

. Climate and climate change: extremes in these can add further stress to an already fragile infrastructure, putting people at greater risk of ill health. People in Australia generally have secure homes and more available methods to deal with extremes in climate. People in developing countries are more at mercy of the elements.

Global marketing

. Tobacco: tobacco manufactures have been targeting developing countries in an attempt to make up lost revenue experienced in developed countries. Smoking can effect human development of people in developing countries.

. Alcohol: Alcohol misuse can decrease human development and impact on the standard of living

. Processed foods: Many low- and middle-income developing countries now face a 'double burden' of disease. EG: People with diabetes or cardiovascular disease may not be able to earn an income, which reduces their standard of living and may prevent them from leading productive lives