AP PSYCHOLOGY Unit 0 Vocabulary

Cultural Norms

the unwritten rules, expectations, and standards for behavior that are considered appropriate or normal within a particular cultural group

Confirmation Bias

when you look for evidence to confirm your beliefs while ignoring all other evidence that many disprove it

Hindsight Bias

…the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon

Overconfidence

we tend to think we know more than we actually do

Independent Variables

(cause) - the factor manipulated by the experimenter whose effect is being studied

Confounding Variables

other items that could affect the outcome of the experiment (other than the independent variable alone)

Dependent variables

(effect) - the factor that may change in response to independent variable. In psychology it is usually a behavior or a mental process.

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions

Case study

Intensive examination of the behavior and mental processes associated with a specific person or situation

Correlation

finding the relationship between two variables

Postive correlation

two variables increase and decrease together

Negative correlation

two variables move in opposite directions

Meta-Analysis

a research strategy where instead of conducting new research with participants, the researchers examine the results of several previous studies

Naturalistic Observation

observation of human or animal behavior in the environment in which it typically occurs

Hypothesis

is a testable prediction, often induced by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory. A statement of relationship between or among variables. If…then…Statement.

Operational definitions

precise definitions of a variable being observed so that it is 1.) measurable and 2.) manageable

Replication

the study is conducted again in the same way but using different participants. This allows us to retest the subject matter and also to find out if the results can generalize to other participants and maybe even other situations.

Measures of Central Tendency

used to find a single value that best represents the “middle” or “center” of a data set, summarizing the distribution of scores. Mean, median, mode

Measures of variation

describe how spread out data points are within a distribution, indicating the data’s variability or dispersion around the central value. Range & standard deviation.

Percentile Rank

is a value below the point where a particular of percent of scores or observations falls

Mean

the arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by their number

Median

the middle score in a rank-ordered distribution

Mode

the most frequently occurring score in a distribution

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Normal Curve

a distribution of scores that produces a bell-shaped symmetrical curve. In this the mean, median, and mode fall at exactly the same point

Positive Skew

a data distribution where most scores are on the lower end, but a few extreme, high scores pull the “tail” of the graph to the right, making the mean higher than the median and mode

Negative Skew

most of the data points are clustered on the high end, with a long “tail” extending to the left towards the lower scores

Bimodal Distribution

when two clearly separate groups are visible in a histogram. Has two modes, or two distinct clusters of data.

Standard Deviation

average difference between each score and the mean

Regression toward the mean

is the tendency for scores to average out

Sample

a smaller, manageable group of individuals elected from a larger population to represent that population in a research study

Population

the entire group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying and to whom they want to generalize their findings

Representative sample

a smaller group of participants selected from a larger population that accurately reflects the characteristics of the entire population, such as age, gender, and socioeconomic status

Random Sampling

everyone in the group has an equal chance of being chosen for the experiment

Generalizing

the extent to which findings (from a study) can be generalized (or extended) to those in natural settings

Experimental group

group that receives “special treatment”

Control Group

comparison group(s) that do NOT receive the “special treatment”

Placebo

an inert substance or treatment given to a control group that has no active therapeutic effect, but it is used to compare the effects of a real treatment

Placebo Effect

when a person experiences a real change in their symptoms or behavior due to the belief that they are receiving a real treatment, even though the treatment itself is an inert substance or fake intervention

Single Blind research

only the participants are unaware of which group they are in (which degree of the variable they receive).

Double blind research

both participants AND researchers are unaware (recorded but not aware) of which group participants are in

experimenter bias

when a researcher’s unconscious expectations, beliefs, or desires influence the design, conduct, or interpretation of an experiment, leading to skewed or inaccurate results

Qualitative Research

a method that produces non-numerical, descriptive data to explore the “hows” and “why’s” pf human experience and behavior, rather than the “how many” or “how much”

Structured Interview

a data-gathering methodology that involves a standard set of questions asked in the same manner and order

Quantitative Research

a method that collects and analyzes numerical date to identify patterns, test theories, and establish relationships between variables

Likert Scales

a rating scale used in surveys to measure attitudes, opinions, or beliefs by asking respondents to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with a series of statements

Peer Review

the process where other experts in the field of psychology evaluate a a research study to ensure its quality, validity, and credibility before it’s published

Replication

the study is conducted again in the same way but using different participants. This allows us to retest the subject matter and also to find out if the results can generalize to other participants and maybe even other situations

Scatterplot

a graph compromised of points generated by values of two variables. The slope of points septics the direction, and the amount of scatter the strength of relationship

Correlation Coefficient

Statistical measure that shows the degree of relationship between two variables

Effect sizes

the strength of the relationship between two variables. In other words, the larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by another

Statistical Significance

difference observed between the two sample groups (experimental and control) is probably NOT due to chance… the difference instead is likely due to a real difference between groups (namely, the independent variable).

Third variable problem (in correlation)

when an observed relationship between two variables is actually caused by a third, unmeasured variable that influences both of the main variables, creating a misleading association and preventing the determination of true causation

Institutional review

a committee that reviews research proposals to ensure they are ethical and protect human participants’ rights and welfare before any study can be conducted

Informed Consent

must inform potential participants about every aspect of the study that might influence their decision to participate and ensure that participation is voluntary

Informed assent

minors cannot give written consent, so the experimenter must continuously get assent from the child in order to proceed

Protection from harm

must minimize any discomfort or risk involved in the study and must act to prevent participants from suffering any long-term negative consequences. Freedom to participate (or withdraw at any time).

Confidentiality

must keep personal information about the participants a secret… report results in such a way that personal information is not disclosed

Deception

Must ONLY deceive people when it is absolutely essential to the study and MUST tell about deception at the end of study during debriefing

Debriefing

must reveal all relevant information about the research and correcting any misimpressions it created. Participant must leave the study in the same way they arrived.