Roman Empire Midterm

How did Romans feel about Kings?

Romans tended to dislike kings due to their long history with monarchy. In the Republic they made laws to prevent this from happening making a senate, consuls and more. Despite this Augustus and Ceasar called themselves kings

How was the Roman Empire linguistically split?

The Western Roman Empire – Spoke Latin as the dominant language.

The Eastern Roman Empire – Spoke Greek as the primary language.

How did Rome become an empire

when a state or nation expands its power and control over other territories, often through military conquest, political unification, economic dominance, or cultural influence.

What are some positives of Roman Empire

Political Stability and Strong Government, Economic Growth and Trade Expansion, Infrastructure and Technological Advancements, Cultural Exchange and Intellectual Advancements

Why are empires difficult to maintain?

they become too large, diverse, and complex to effectively govern. Over time, they face internal and external pressures that lead to decline.

What were the formal positions within the Roman Republic?

Magistrates (Executive Branch)- including Consuls, Praetors, Adelis, Quators, Censors

The Senate (Advisory Body)

Popular Assemblies (Legislative Branch) Comitia Centuriata, Comitia Tributa, Concilium Plebis, Tribunes of the Plebs

Dictator (Temporary Emergency Position)

Polybius

Hellenistic Historian that wrote about how there are three main types of constitutions. Monarchy (Rule by One)

Aristocracy (Rule by a Few)

Democracy (Rule by the Many)

Rome strength came from the balance of these three

First Triumvirate

informal political alliance between three powerful Roman leaders:

Julius Caesar – A rising general and politician who sought military command and political power.

Pompey the Great – Rome’s most successful general, who wanted land for his veterans.

Marcus Licinius Crassus – The wealthiest man in Rome, who wanted military glory and influence.

Second Triumvirate

a formal, legal alliance between three rulers:

Octavian (Augustus) – Julius Caesar’s adopted heir, seeking to avenge his death.

Mark Antony – A loyal general of Caesar, controlling the eastern provinces.

Marcus Lepidus – A politician and general with influence in Spain and Africa

Augustus's second settlement

a key moment in Augustus’s (then known as Octavian) consolidation of power. making reforms that gave Augustus absolute control over the military and government, while still maintaining the appearance of the Republic

How are emperors represented in sculptures and art?

to show their power, authority, and connection to the gods. These images were designed to make them appear strong and divine, even if they didn’t look like that in real life.

· What are some different ways we can evaluate the reliability/usefulness of a source?

Authorship, Publication Source, Accuracy, Date of Publication, Purpose and Audience and much more

Tiberius

son-in-law of Augustus who became a suspicious tyrannical Emperor of Rome after a brilliant military career (42 BC to AD 37)

Gaius Caligula

started his reign with promise but quickly became notorious for his erratic behavior and extreme cruelty. His mental instability, often linked to his absolute power, led to actions like declaring himself a god and executing those who displeased him. Was eventually assassinated (37–41 CE)

Tiberius and Gaius

two emperors from the Julio-Claudian dynasty, demonstrate the risks and problems of hereditary succession in the Roman Empire. Their reigns show how the inheritance of power could lead to unstable rule and unpredictable leadership.

Idea of Good vs Bad Emperor

comes from how rulers are judged based on their leadership, character, and the impact of their reigns on the empire. It often reflects whether the emperor benefited or harmed the empire, its people, and its stability

· How are religion and politics enmeshed in the Roman Empire?

they were closely connected, with religious practices often serving political purposes and political leaders using religion to strengthen their authority.

dynamics between Rome (the center of the Empire) and the provinces

between Rome (the center of the empire) and its provinces, as well as the relationship between the emperor, governors, and generals, evolved significantly over time as the Roman Empire expanded and faced new challenges.

the Pax Romana (27 BCE – 180 CE), there was relative peace and stability

As the empire grew, managing distant provinces became more difficult

Fire in Rome (AD 64)

Flames destroyed nearly three-fourths of capital city. Emperor Nero blamed and persecuted the Christians.

Why was Christianity controversial by some during Nero's reign?

It was was seen as controversial during Nero’s reign for being a New Religion, Refusal to Worship the Emperor and more

How was Judaism viewed during the Nero Reign

it was tolerated more because it was an ancient religion, and Jews were exempt from emperor worship.

How did the opinions of the Senate and elites, masses, and army play into the failure/success of imperial reigns?

depended heavily on the support of the Senate and elites, the masses, and the army. If an emperor gained their favor, his reign could be stable and successful. But if he alienated any of these groups, it could lead to rebellion, political instability, and eventual overthrow.

What was the structure of the Roman army?

Legions:force of about 5,000 soldiers, made up of Roman citizens.

Auxiliaries: Non-citizens from the provinces

Command: Led by generals and centurions, with the emperor being the top commander.

From which parts of the Empire did soldiers come from?

Legions: Mostly Roman Citizens. , initially from Italy, later from across the empire

Auxiliaries: Recruited from non-citizens. · the provinces like Gaul, Spain, and North Africa.

How long was the term of service

Soldiers served for 25 years

· What as the significance of the Praetorian Guard?

Elite group protecting the emperor. They had political power and could influence the emperor's selection or assassination

Why was Judaea strategically important to the Roman Empire?

located in a key position in the eastern Mediterranean, acting as a bridge between the Roman Empire and the Eastern kingdoms

Patrician

In ancient Rome, a member of the aristocratic ruling class upper class.

Plebian

member of the common people or the lower social class in ancient Rome

Empire

an extensive group of states or countries under a single supreme authority, formerly especially an emperor or empress.

Popularis

political faction or a politician in ancient Rome who sought to gain the support of the plebeian (common people)

Optimate

refers to a political faction in ancient Rome that represented the interests of the aristocracy and the Senate

Res publica

Latin term that translates roughly to "public affair" or "public matter," and it refers to the republic or the commonwealth in the context of ancient Rome.

Res privata

a Latin term that refers to private property or matters concerning the private affairs of individuals

Res Gestae

a famous inscription that records the achievements and accomplishments of Emperor Augustus,

Numismatics

the study of Roman coins, imperial currency, and medals provides invaluable insight into the empire’s governance

The Principate

the first phase of the Roman Empire, which lasted from 27 BCE (when Octavian—later known as Augustus—became the first Roman emperor) until 284 CE

spolia opima

the most prestigious form of war trophy in ancient Rome. It was awarded to a Roman general who personally defeated and killed the enemy leader in single combat

alchemy

was not the fully developed science and philosophy we recognize today, but it laid the groundwork for the later evolution of alchemical thought. It was a time of blending Greek philosophical ideas, Egyptian mysticism, and Roman practicality

Maiestas

often translated as "treason" in the context of Roman law, was a serious offense in ancient Rome. It referred to any act that was considered an attack or insult to the majesty (or dignity) of the state, its leaders, or its institutions, particularly the emperor during the imperial period.

Auxiliaries (of the Roman army)

non-citizen soldiers who served in the military, distinct from the legionaries, who were Roman citizens.

Praetorian Guard

an elite unit of soldiers in ancient Rome, originally tasked with guarding the emperor and his family, but over time, it became a powerful political force that played a significant role in Roman imperial history.

Pax Deorum

(Latin for "Peace of the Gods") was a central concept in ancient Roman religion, referring to the peace or favor of the god

Constitutio Antoniniana

also known as the Edict of Caracalla, was a decree issued in 212 CE by Emperor Caracalla. It granted Roman citizenship to nearly all free inhabitants of the Roman Empire.

Assassination of Julius Caesar

44 BC

Augustus celebrates three triumphs in Rome:

29 BCE

Augustus celebrated in Rome following his victory over the combined forces of the rebellious provinces of Spain and Dalmatia.

Augustus's second settlement is produced:

23 BCE

Augustus formally consolidated his power, relinquishing his extraordinary powers but still maintaining control over the army and finances during his second settlement.

Augustus erects the Forum of Augustus

2 BCE

Augustus inaugurated the Forum of Augustus, a monumental space dedicated to Roman gods and to his military victories, symbolizing his power and influence.

Battle of the Teutoburg Forest

9 A.D.

and it was won by an alliance of German tribes that destroyed three Roman legions. This made the Rhine River a relatively permanent boundary between Rome and Germany, and thus, Germany and its western neighbors.

Augustus's death + Tiberius rises to emperor

Date: 14 CE

succeeded by his stepson Tiberius, marking the beginning of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.

Treason Trials

Tiberius's reign, circa 20s-30s CE

a series of treason trials occurred, where many senators and high-ranking officials were executed or exiled under accusations of conspiracy.

Senators propose a return to the Republic under Claudius

41 CE

After the assassination of Caligula, a faction of senators briefly considered restoring the Roman Republic before declaring Claudius as emperor.

Quinquennium Neronis

The Five Years of Nero rule which was peaceful (54-59 CE)

Uprising in Roman province of Syria (AD)

66 CE

The Jewish revolt in the province of Judea escalated into a larger uprising, eventually contributing to the Roman-Jewish War.

Nero's Death

68 CE, died by suicide, marking the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and triggering a period of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors.

When does Flavian Dynasty begin, and what does this mean for hereditary power?

69 CE

began with the rise of Vespasian as emperor, establishing a hereditary line of rulers following the chaos of Nero's death

Execution of Jesus Christ

30-33 CE

Jesus Christ was crucified by the Roman authorities under the governorship of Pontius Pilate, marking a foundational moment for Christianity.

Sack of Jerusalem:

70 CE

The Roman army, under Titus, captured and destroyed Jerusalem, including the Second Temple, in response to the Jewish revolt.

Romulus and Remus

Traditional story of how Rome began. Twins the sons of the god Mars and the princess Rhea Silvia. Were abandoned and rescued by a wolf known as Lupa raised by a shepherd . Grew to build Rome. Disagreement arose between the twins over where the city should be located and who should rule it. The dispute led to Romulus killing Remus and becoming the sole founder and first king of Rome.

Who are considered the two founders of Rome

Romulus and Remus

Lucius Tarquinius Superbus

(also known as Tarquin the Proud) was the seventh and last king of Rome, reigning from 534 BCE to 509 BCE. He is often remembered as a tyrannical ruler whose actions led to the overthrow of the Roman monarchy and the establishment of the Roman Republic.

Lucius Juius Brutus

the leader of the revolt that overthrew the monarchy and led to the establishment of the Roman Republic. He held the position of consul in the newly established Roman Republic.

Gracchus/Gracchi brothers

were Roman politicians and reformers in the 2nd century BCE who are best known for their efforts to address social inequality and economic problems in Rome.

Pompey

was one of the most influential military and political figures in the late Roman Republic. Born in 106 BCE, he rose to prominence through his military successes, political alliances, and his eventual rivalry with Julius Caesar, which played a key role in the downfall of the Republic.

Julius Caesar Date of birth

July 12 or 13, 100 BCE

Julius Caesar Date of assassination

March 15, 44 BCE (Ides of March) A group of senators, including Brutus and Cassius, conspired to murder Caesar on the Ides of March, 44 BCE, stabbing him 23 times.

Julius Caesar Positions held

Consul, Governor of Gaul, Dictator perpetuo (dictator for life), Pontifex Maximus

Julius Caesar as a dictator

He centralized power, enacted reforms, and weakened the Senate's authority, consolidating control over the Roman state.

Julius Caesar Family lineage

Sons: Caesarion (with Cleopatra)

Daughters: Julia Caesaris (married Pompey), Agrippina the Elder (his niece)

Wives: Cornelia, Pompeia, Calpurnia

Mother: Aurelia Cotta

Father: Gaius Julius Caesar

Relation to Augustus: Great-uncle

Was Ceaser a Popularis or optimate

Popularis (aligned with the common people and plebeians)

Marc Antony

c. 83–30 BCE) was a Roman general and politician, best known for his alliance with Julius Caesar, his relationship with Cleopatra, and his role in the fall of the Roman Republic.

Marc Anthony Relationship with Cleopatra

had a romantic and political alliance with Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, which included a marriage in 34 BCE.

Marc Anthony Children with Cloepatra

They had three children: Ptolemy XV (Caesarion), Alexander Hegemon, and Cleopatra Selene II. Caesarion was killed after Antony's defeat, while the others were taken to Rome and raised by Augustus.

Marc Anthony Conflict with Augustus

alliance with Cleopatra and his challenge to Augustus (then Octavian) led to the Final War of the Roman Republic, culminating in their defeat at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE

Sejanus

20 BCE – 31 CE) was a Roman officer and politician who rose to great power during the reign of Emperor Tiberius. He is most infamous for his role as the commander of the Praetorian Guard and his subsequent attempt to seize power for himself.

How Sejanus secured his position

secured his position by becoming Praetorian Prefect, gaining Tiberius’s trust, and using his control over the Praetorian Guard to eliminate rivals and influence imperial politics.

Sejanus Relationship with Tiberius

initially had a close relationship with Tiberius, serving as a trusted advisor, but it became strained as Sejanus sought to consolidate power and eventually betray him.

Sejanus Execution

was executed in 31 CE, ordered by Emperor Tiberius after he discovered Sejanus’s conspiracy to seize the throne, fearing for his own life and the stability of the empire.

Valeria Messalina

the third wife of Emperor Claudius. She is infamous for her alleged promiscuity, manipulative political actions, and eventual execution for conspiring against Claudius in 48 CE.

Agrippina the Younger:

Claudius’s fourth wife, was the daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder. She is known for her ambitious and ruthless pursuit of power, ultimately having Claudius poisoned in 54 CE to make her son, Nero, emperor.

Herod the Great

the Roman-appointed King of Judea known for his ambitious building projects, including the expansion of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, and his complex relationships with both Roman authorities and his subjects.

Pontius Pilate

was a Roman governor of Judea from 26 to 36 CE, best known for his role in the trial and crucifixion of Jesus Christ.

· Jesus

the central figure of Christianity, believed by Christians to be the Son of God and the Messiah.

Basilica Julia

was a significant public building in ancient Rome, constructed under Julius Caesar in 46 BCE and later completed and restored by Augustus after a fire. It was located in the Roman Forum and served as a law court and public meeting place.

The Forum of Augustus

- Wanted a capital, so construction of a new forum began

- Augustus was desperately trying to compete with many aspects of the Greeks (wanted a city like Periclean Athens!)

- Marble used to be imported at a great cost, but now that Augustus had Italy's ready availability of marble...he used it!

- The forum is in ruins today

The Ara Pacis

The Roman Senate in 13 BCE

Dedicated on: January 30, 9 BCE

Purpose: Built to celebrate peace and stability in the Roman Empire following Augustus’ successful military campaigns in Spain and Gaul. It symbolized the beginning of the Pax Romana, a long period of relative peace under Augustus’ rule.

Domus Aurea

Built by: Emperor Nero

Construction Period: 64–68 CE (after the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE)

Purpose: it was built as Nero’s extravagant imperial palace, covering a vast area of central Rome. It was designed to showcase his power, divine status, and luxurious lifestyle, replacing the aristocratic homes destroyed by the fire.

· The Aeneid – Virgil

Author: Virgil (Publius Vergilius Maro)

Written: 29–19 BCE

Commissioned by: Emperor Augustus (though not officially, it was heavily aligned with his political vision)

Purpose: To provide Rome with a national epic that linked its origins to Troy and the gods, legitimizing Augustus’ rule. To glorify Roman values such as duty (pietas), heroism, and destiny. To reinforce the idea that Rome was destined to rule the world (manifest destiny).

Tacitus – Annals

Author: Publius Cornelius Tacitus (c. 56–120 CE)

Written: c. 110–120 CE

Purpose: To provide a detailed historical account of the Roman Empire from the death of Augustus (14 CE) to Nero (68 CE). To critique the abuses of power under the emperors, especially Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. To contrast the loss of Republican values with the corruption of Imperial rule.

· Edward Gibbon – The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776)

1737–1794)

Written: 1776–1788 (in six volumes)

Purpose: To analyze the causes behind the fall of the Roman Empire, particularly the Western Roman Empire, which collapsed in 476 CE. Gibbon sought to understand how such a powerful and long-lasting empire could unravel, emphasizing moral, political, and religious factors. His work is an historical narrative, but also deeply philosophical, critiquing the decline of Rome and providing insight into the rise of Christianity and other cultural shifts.

· Ennius – Annals

Quintus Ennius

Born: c. 239 BCE in Rudiae, a town in Southern Italy

Died: c. 169 BCE

Occupation: Roman poet, dramatist, and historian

Significance: he is often regarded as the father of Roman poetry and one of the earliest Roman writers to use Latin for serious literary works. His most famous work, Annales (Annals), is a historical epic that spans the history of Rome from its legendary beginnings to Ennius' contemporary period.

Horace

Born: 65 BCE in Venusia (in southern Italy)

Died: 8 BCE

Occupation: Roman poet, satirist, and literary critic

Significance: he is one of the most important poets of the Augustan Age (the reign of Emperor Augustus) and is renowned for his lyric poetry, including odes, satires, and epistles. His work shaped the development of Roman poetry and influenced Western literature, particularly with his exploration of themes like friendship, philosophy, and the fleeting nature of life.

Vergil

October 15, 70 BCE in Andes, near Mantua (in modern-day Italy)

Died: September 21, 19 BCE

Occupation: Roman poet, best known for his epic Aeneid

Significance: he is widely regarded as one of the greatest poets of ancient Rome, and his works, particularly the Aeneid, have had a lasting influence on Western literature, especially in the epic genre. His poetry is known for its elevated style, moral and philosophical themes, and his exploration of Roman identity and destiny.

Ovid

March 20, 43 BCE in Sulmo (modern-day Sulmona, Italy)

Died: 17 or 18 CE in Tomis (modern-day Constanța, Romania, on the Black Sea)

Occupation: Roman poet

Significance: one of the most famous and influential poets of ancient Rome. His works, particularly Metamorphoses, Ars Amatoria, and Heroides, are among the most celebrated in Western literature. His poetry is known for its elegance, wit, and exploration of love, mythology, and transformation. his life was marked by exile, a consequence of his being banished from Rome by Emperor Augustus, possibly due to his poetry, though the exact reasons remain unclear.

The Roman Revolution - Ronald Syme (1939)

The Roman Revolution is one of the most influential and groundbreaking works in the study of Roman history and political science. It focuses on the political and social transformation of Rome from the Republic to the Empire, particularly under the leadership of Julius Caesar, Augustus, and the key figures of the late Republic.

Syme’s approach challenges traditional views of the transition to empire, emphasizing the concentration of power and the manipulation of institutions rather than a peaceful, constitutional shift.

· Seutonius – The Twelve Caesars

one of the most important works of Roman biographical literature, providing detailed accounts of the lives of the first twelve emperors of Rome, from Julius Caesar to Domitian.

work is invaluable for its insight into the personal lives, actions, and behaviors of the emperors, blending biography, gossip, and scandal with historical facts.

combines anecdotes, rumors, and official records to provide a multifaceted view of the emperors’ personalities, reigns, and their relationship with the Roman people and Senate.