unit 4 Social Psychology and Personality (AP) (copy)

What is attribution theory?

An approach in social psychology that examines how we explain the causes of behavior—our own and others’—by assigning internal or external attributions.

What’s the difference between dispositional and situational attributions?

Dispositional (internal) attributions tie behavior to personal traits; situational (external) attributions tie behavior to environmental factors.

Give an example of a dispositional attribution for failing a test.

“They failed because they’re not smart enough or they didn’t study.”

Give an example of a situational attribution for failing a test.

“They failed because the test was unusually hard or they were dealing with personal issues.”

What is an explanatory style?

A person’s habitual way of explaining good and bad events in their life, along dimensions of internal/external, stable/unstable, global/specific.

Define optimistic explanatory style.

Attributing good events to internal, stable, global causes and bad events to external, unstable, specific causes.

Define pessimistic explanatory style.

Attributing good events to external, unstable, specific causes and bad events to internal, stable, global causes.

Example of optimistic style for success.

“I got an A because I’m smart and studied hard” (good = internal/stable/global).

Example of optimistic style for failure.

“I failed because the test was unusually tough this time” (bad = external/unstable/specific).

Example of pessimistic style for success.

“I got an A because the test was easy this time” (good = external/unstable/specific).

Example of pessimistic style for failure.

“I failed because I’m just bad at this subject” (bad = internal/stable/global).

What is the availability heuristic?

Judging the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind.

Give an example of the availability heuristic.

Thinking shark attacks are common after seeing one on the news.

What is the representativeness heuristic?

Judging the probability of something based on how closely it matches a prototype or stereotype.

Give an example of the representativeness heuristic.

Assuming someone who loves books must be a librarian, not a salesperson.

What is confirmation bias?

The tendency to seek, interpret, and remember information that confirms our preexisting beliefs.

What is anchoring bias?

Relying too heavily on the first piece of information (the “anchor”) when making decisions.

Example of anchoring bias.

Seeing a $100 tag makes a $50 sale seem like an amazing deal, even if $50 is still expensive.

What is belief perseverance?

Holding on to beliefs even after evidence has discredited them.

What is overconfidence bias?

Being more confident in our judgments or abilities than is objectively warranted.

Define actor–observer bias.

We attribute our own actions to situational factors but others’ actions to dispositional factors.

Define fundamental attribution error.

Overemphasizing dispositional causes and underestimating situational causes when explaining others’ behavior.

Define self-serving bias.

Attributing our successes to internal factors and failures to external factors to protect self-esteem.

What is locus of control?

The degree to which individuals believe they have control over events affecting them (internal vs. external).

Name a benefit of an internal locus of control.

Higher achievement motivation, better mental health, and more effective stress-coping.

Name a drawback of an internal locus of control.

Tendency to self-blame and frustration when things are beyond one’s control.

What is the mere exposure effect?

The phenomenon by which repeated exposure to a stimulus increases our liking for it.

How can mere exposure effect influence person perception?

People we see more often—even without interaction—tend to be liked more.

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect)?

When our expectations about someone lead us to behave toward them in ways that elicit confirming behavior.

Give an example of a self-fulfilling prophecy.

A teacher thinks a student is low-ability, gives them less support, and the student then performs poorly.

What is upward social comparison?

Comparing ourselves to someone perceived as better off, which can motivate improvement but may harm self-esteem.

What is downward social comparison?

Comparing ourselves to someone perceived as worse off, which can boost self-esteem but may reduce motivation.

What is relative deprivation?

The feeling of being worse off than others to whom we compare ourselves, leading to dissatisfaction.

What is a stereotype?

A generalized, oversimplified belief about a group of people.

How do stereotypes act as cognitive shortcuts?

They reduce mental effort by allowing quick judgments based on group-based assumptions.

What is a schema?

A mental framework or network of knowledge that organizes information about a category.

What is prejudice?

A negative attitude or emotional response toward a person or group based on stereotypes.

What is discrimination?

Behavioral actions (unfair or hostile) directed at a person or group because of prejudice.

How are stereotype, prejudice, and discrimination connected?

Stereotype (belief) → prejudice (attitude) → discrimination (behavior).

What is an implicit attitude?

An unconscious evaluation or bias toward a person or group.

How do implicit attitudes differ from explicit attitudes?

Implicit are automatic and unacknowledged, while explicit are deliberate and self-reported.

Define the just-world phenomenon.

The belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Give an example of the just-world phenomenon.

Blaming a homelessness victim for their situation to maintain belief in a just world.

What is out-group homogeneity bias?

Perceiving members of other groups as more similar to each other than members of one’s own group.

What is in-group bias?

Favoring one’s own group over others in evaluation and treatment.

What is ethnocentrism?

Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture.

How can implicit biases influence behavior?

They shape split-second decisions (e.g., hiring, policing) without conscious awareness.

What is belief perseverance?

The tendency to cling to one’s initial beliefs even after they are discredited.

How does belief perseverance fuel confirmation bias?

It leads people to seek or interpret information that confirms their existing beliefs.

Define confirmation bias.

The tendency to favor, search for, and recall information that supports one’s preconceptions.

Why is belief perseverance difficult to overcome?

It requires actively considering opposing evidence and admitting past beliefs were wrong.

What is cognitive dissonance?

Mental discomfort experienced when one’s actions and attitudes are inconsistent.

Give an example of cognitive dissonance.

Feeling uneasy after eating unhealthy food despite valuing a healthy lifestyle.

How can people reduce cognitive dissonance by changing behavior?

They may stop the conflicting action (e.g., quit smoking to match health values).

How can people reduce cognitive dissonance by changing attitudes?

They may justify the behavior (e.g., “Smoking relieves my stress.”).

What is selective exposure?

Seeking out information that supports one’s choices or beliefs to reduce dissonance.

How does cognitive dissonance influence decision making?

People tend to justify their choices by overvaluing selected options and undervaluing rejected ones.

Why do people seek consonant information after making a decision?

To reinforce that the decision was correct and alleviate any lingering doubt.

What are social norms?

Unwritten rules or expectations for behavior in specific social situations.

What is normative social influence?

Conforming to fit in, gain approval, or avoid disapproval from others.

What is informational social influence?

Conforming because we believe others have more accurate information.

What was the Asch Line Experiment?

A study demonstrating conformity to group judgments even when they are clearly wrong.

What did the Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrate?

How situational roles and perceived power can lead to abusive behavior.

What is the central route to persuasion?

Persuading through logical arguments, facts, and evidence when the audience is motivated to think critically.

What is the peripheral route to persuasion?

Persuading through superficial cues (e.g., attractiveness, emotion) when the audience is not motivated to think deeply.

What is the halo effect?

The tendency to assume one positive trait (e.g., attractiveness) implies other positive traits (e.g., intelligence).

What is the foot-in-the-door technique?

Starting with a small request to increase the likelihood of agreement to a larger request later.

What is the door-in-the-face technique?

Making a large, likely-to-be-refused request first, then following with a smaller, more reasonable request.

What is obedience to authority?

Complying with orders or instructions from an authority figure.

Name a factor that increases obedience.

Perceiving the authority figure as legitimate.

Name a factor that decreases obedience.

When others dissent or defy the authority figure.

What was the Milgram Experiment?

Participants administered (fake) shocks to others under authority pressure, showing high rates of obedience.

What ethical concerns did Milgram raise?

Use of deception, emotional distress of participants, and lack of fully informed consent.

What was the Monster Study?

An unethical stuttering experiment on children that caused emotional harm due to labeling and criticism.

What guidelines did the APA establish in response to ethical concerns?

Strict rules on informed consent, right to withdraw, protection from harm, and debriefing.

What are social institutions?

Organized structures and norms that govern behavior and meet societal needs.

Name five major social institutions.

Family, education, religion, government, and economy.

What role does the family institution play?

Primary socialization, nurturing, and emotional support.

What role does the education institution play?

Imparts knowledge, skills, and social values through formal and informal learning.

What role does the religion institution play?

Provides moral guidelines, community, and coping mechanisms for existential questions.

What role does the government institution play?

Creates and enforces laws, ensures security, and manages resources.

What role does the economy institution play?

Organizes production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

What is role theory?

The idea that social roles come with expectations that influence individual behavior.

What is socialization?

The process of learning and internalizing societal norms, values, and behaviors.

What is primary socialization?

Learning norms and behaviors within the family during early childhood.

What is secondary socialization?

Learning norms and behaviors in institutions and groups beyond the family.

What is individualism?

A cultural orientation emphasizing personal goals, independence, and self-expression.

What is collectivism?

A cultural orientation emphasizing group goals, social harmony, and interdependence.

What is multiculturalism?

The coexistence and appreciation of multiple cultures within a society.

How does group size influence conformity?

Larger groups create stronger pressure to conform.

How does unanimity influence conformity?

Complete agreement within a group increases individual conformity.

What is group cohesion?

The sense of belonging and acceptance that strengthens conformity pressures.

What is groupthink?

The suppression of dissenting opinions in favor of group harmony, leading to poor decisions.

What is group polarization?

The tendency for group discussion to amplify members’ initial leanings, making decisions more extreme.

What is diffusion of responsibility?

Feeling less personal responsibility to act when others are present.

What is social facilitation?

Improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

What is social loafing?

Decreased effort by individuals when working in a group without individual evaluation.

What is deindividuation?

Loss of self-awareness and accountability in group settings, leading to impulsive behavior.

What is a social trap?

A situation where individual short-term gains lead to long-term collective losses.

What are superordinate goals?

Shared objectives that require cooperation between groups to achieve, reducing conflict.