AP psych (module 0)

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Mean

The average of a distribution obtained by adding the scores, and the dividing by the number of scores available

Median

The middle number in a distribution

Percentile rank

A percentage of scores that are lower than the given score

Skewed distribution

Scores that lacks symmetry around the average value

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores

Standard deviation

A measure of how much scores hover around the mean

Normal curve

A symmetrical bell shaped curve where most scores fall around the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes. (Also called a normal distribution.).

Inferential statistics

Numerical data that generalizes information to be applicable from a sample group to the entire population

meta-analysis

A procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

Statistical significance

an outcome in data or a research study being unlikely to happen by random chance alone (assuming that there is no difference between the populations studied)

Descriptive statistics

Measure of central tendency, percentile, rank and measure of variation

Critical thinking

Not automatically accepting arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

Hindsight bias

To believe in event is predictable all along, only after you know the outcome

"I knew it all along”

Peer reviewers

Scientific experts, to evaluate a research articles theory, originality, and accuracy

Theory

an explanation using a set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviours or events

Hypothesis

A testable prediction often implied by a theory

Operational definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.

For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures also known as operationalization.

Replication

Repeating the research study, usually with different participants, in different situations, to see what is a basic finding can be reproduced

Case study

A non-experimental technique where one person or group is studied in depth in hope of revealing universal principles

Naturalistic observation

A non-experimental technique of observing and recording behaviour in a naturally occurring situation without trying to manipulate the situation

Survey

A non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviours of a particular group, usually by questioning a random sample of the group

social desirability bias

A bias from people responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes

Self-report bias

A bias when people report their behaviour and accurately

Sampling bias

flood sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Population

everyone in a group that’s being studied from which random samples may be drawn from (note: except for national studies, this does not refer to a countries whole population)

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and how well either factor predicts the other (describes the relationship between two or more variables)

for example ice cream cells and temperature outside

Correlation coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two variables ranging from -1.00 to +1.00

Variable

Anything that can vary and is possible and ethical to measure

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots each of which represents the value of two variables, the slope of the points suggest the direction of the relationship between the two variables and the amount of scatter suggest the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)

Illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists or perceiving a stronger than actual relationship

Regression toward the mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or the event of fall back (regress) toward the average

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factor (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behaviour or mental process (dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors

Experimental group

in an experiment it is the group exposed to the treatment - that is to one version of the independent variable

Control group

in an experiment it is the group not exposed to the treatment. This contrast with the experimental group and serves as the comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance thus minimizing pre-existing differences between the different groups

Single/double blind procedure

an experiment procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are blind about whether the participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug evaluation studies

Placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone.

Any effect on behaviour caused by the administration of an insert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Independent variable

A factor that you change, control or manipulate in an experiment to test its effects on another factor

Confounding variable

outside a factor in a study that affects both the independent variable and dependent variable, creating a false link between them

example: eating ice cream(independent variable), drowning rates (dependent variable) and summer weather (confounding variable) High temperature causes people to eat more ice cream and also causes more people to go swimming increasing the chances of drowning

Experimenter bias

biased cause when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs

Dependent variable

The outcome or the effect that you measured in an experiment, which changes in response to the independent variable.

Validity

The extent a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Quantitative research

A research method that relies on quantifiable numerical data

Qualitative research

research method that relies on in-depth narrative data that are not translated into numbers

Informed consent

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate or not

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions to its participants

Descriptive statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. It includes the measures of central tendency and measures of variation

Histogram

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

bias

leaning for or against a person, group or idea

psychology

The scientific study of the mind and behaviour of any living creature

overconfidence

A bias where a persons subjective certainty in their own abilities, judgement or knowledge is much higher than their actual objective performance or reality

Curiosity

Asking questions

Skepticism

Sifting reality from fantasy and demanding evidence

Humility

Accepting incorrect predictions/ answers

Falsifiable

A theory or hypothesis can be tested and proven wrong by real world observation and data