L1 - Intro & Identifying Arguments

Critical Thinking Ch.1 & Halpern (2014) Ch.1

What is critical thinking?

It is thinking that is purposeful, reasoned and goal directed(…),when the thinker is using skills that are thoughtful and effective for the particular context and type of thinking task.

What is in a critical disposition?

• Flexibility

• Persistence

• Willingness to self-correct and admit errors

• Being mindful

What is scientific thinking?

Thinking about the content of science.

The set of reasoning processes that permeate the field of science:

• induction, deduction, experimental design, causal reasoning, concept formation, hypothesis testing, and so on.

What is it an argument?

An attempt to convince you about something by providing reasons. The reasons can be good or bad ones.

What is a rhetoric?

Any verbal or written attempt to persuade solely through the power of words (for example, using associations to frighten you).

What is an explanation?

Attempts to illustrate why something is the case, not that something is the case.

What is in an argument?

There is a set of propositions (actual content of a sentence), consisting of:

• a number of premises

• a conclusion

What is an argument (Bowell, Cowan & Kemp)?

A set of propositions of which one is a conclusion and the remainder are premises, intended as support for the conclusion.

What is a proposition?

The factual content expressed by a declarative sentence on a particular occasion; the same proposition can be expressed by different sentences, and the same sentence can express different propositions depending on who utters it or when.

What is rhetoric (as defined in Critical Thinking

A Concise Guide)?

What is a conclusion (in an argument)?

The primary claim in an argument — the proposition that the arguer is trying to get the audience to accept.

What is a premise?

A claim put forward as support for the conclusion of an argument, however certain or uncertain that claim may be.

What is standard form?

A method of setting out an argument with premises numbered (P1, P2, etc.) in the order they occur in the reasoning, followed by an inference bar and then the conclusion (C), used to maximize clarity for analysis.

What is an inference bar?

The line drawn between the last premise and the conclusion in standard form, which can be read as meaning "therefore."

What is an argument-reconstruction?

The end product of setting out an argument in standard form; the process of identifying and clearly restating an argument's premises and conclusion.

What are conclusion indicators?

Words or phrases (such as "therefore," "hence," "thus," "so," "it can be concluded that") that typically signal the conclusion of an argument.

What are premise indicators?

Words or phrases (such as "since," "because," "my reason is," "my evidence for this is") that typically signal a premise is being given.

What is an implicit conclusion?

A conclusion that is not explicitly stated but is assumed to be understood by the audience ("goes without saying"); best avoided for clarity in one's own arguments.

What is an implicit (hidden) premise?

A premise that is assumed or intended by the arguer as a reason for the conclusion, but is not actually stated explicitly in the argument.

What is extraneous material (in an argument)?

Content in a text or speech that plays no role in the argument itself — used for stage-setting, emphasis, or rhetorical effect — and should be excluded from an argument-reconstruction.

What is the key difference between an argument and an explanation?

An argument tries to give reasons to persuade an audience that a claim is true (the audience does not yet accept it); an explanation assumes the audience already accepts a fact and instead specifies its cause.

What is an intermediate conclusion?

A conclusion of one part of an extended argument that is then used as a premise for a further argument leading toward the final conclusion.

What is an extended argument?

A chain of arguments in which one conclusion serves as a premise for a subsequent argument, eventually reaching a final conclusion.

What is an inference (in logic/critical thinking)?

Each step of reasoning — each move from a premise or premises to a conclusion; unlike everyday usage, a logical inference can be completely certain, not doubtful.

What is the working definition of truth used in Critical Thinking

A Concise Guide?

What are open-mindedness, intellectual courage, and intellectual autonomy?

Key habits of a good critical thinker

What is an indexical?

A word (like "I" or "you") whose meaning changes depending on who uses it or the context in which it is used.

What does it mean to distinguish arguments from explanations using "because"?

The word "because" can either introduce a premise (argument, trying to persuade) or state a cause (explanation, assuming the fact is already accepted) — context determines which is meant.

What is critical thinking (Halpern's working definition)?

The use of cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome; thinking that is purposeful, reasoned, goal-directed, effortful, and consciously controlled.

What is Russell's equation for critical thinking?

Attitude + Knowledge + Thinking Skills = Critical Thinking.

What does "critical" mean in critical thinking (Halpern)?

It denotes an evaluation component — constructively reflecting on both the positive and negative attributes of a decision, a solved problem, or the reasoning process itself.

What is nondirected or automatic thinking?

Thinking that is goal-directed but involves very little conscious evaluation, such as routine habits like brushing your teeth or taking a usual route to work; not considered critical thinking.

What is noncritical thinking?

Thinking such as rote recall of information (e.g. listing state capitals) or failing to consider evidence that contradicts a preferred conclusion; it is not purposeful, evaluative thinking.

What is cognitive process instruction?

An area of psychology whose goal is to use knowledge about human thinking processes to help people improve how they think.

What is Halpern's four-part model for learning to think critically?

(1) Explicitly learn the skills of critical thinking, (2) develop the disposition for effortful thinking and learning, (3) direct learning activities to increase transcontextual transfer (structure training), (4) make metacognitive monitoring explicit and overt.

What is the "disposition" for effortful thinking?

The attitude or willingness of a good thinker to exert conscious effort, work in a planful manner, check for accuracy, gather information, and persist even when a solution is not obvious.

What is the "habit of planning" in critical thinking?

The practice of outlining or diagramming the structure of a response before beginning to write or act, rather than responding impulsively.

What is self-regulation (in learning)?

A complex process involving using feedback, monitoring comprehension, assessing progress toward a goal, and judging how well something has been learned.

What is cognitive flexibility?

The ability to change how you think about something — seeing things from another's point of view, considering multiple options, and seeking information that may not be readily available.

What is a "closed mind" (Rokeach)?

A mind characterized by rigidity and dogmatism, marked by responses like "That's the way I've always done it" that cut off consideration of new ideas.

What is self-justification?

Making excuses for a belief or behavior in order to keep one's self-image intact; a major deterrent to admitting mistakes, even in the face of strong contrary evidence.

What is mindfulness (Langer's definition)?

"The simple act of drawing novel distinctions" — the opposite of automatic-pilot, routinized thinking.

What is consensus-seeking?

A disposition in which critical thinkers seek ways for group members to agree on some aspects of a solution while allowing themselves and others to express doubts, without simply caving to majority opinion.

What is transfer of training (in critical thinking)?

The ability to recognize when a critical thinking skill learned in one context is needed and apply it appropriately in a new, different context.

What is metacognition?

Knowledge of what we know (and what we know about what we know), and the use of that knowledge to monitor and direct further learning and thinking.

What is metacognitive monitoring?

Checking whether progress is being made toward a goal, ensuring accuracy, and making decisions about how to allocate time and mental effort while thinking.

What is confirmation bias, as illustrated by Halpern's discussion of weighing evidence?

The tendency to weigh evidence more heavily when it favors a belief we already hold than when it disconfirms that belief.

What is the contrast effect?

A cognitive bias in which a judgment (e.g. about price or seriousness) is influenced by comparison to a reference point, making something seem better or worse than it would in isolation.

What did the Power Balance Wristband example illustrate (Halpern)?

A case in which millions of people purchased a product based on pseudoscientific marketing claims, later admitted by the company to have "no credible scientific evidence" — illustrating the need for critical evaluation of claims.

What is the "knowledge worker" or "symbol analyst"?

A term for a new type of employee who can carry out multistep operations, manipulate abstract and complex ideas, acquire new information efficiently, and remain flexible for new paradigms and lifelong learning.

What is a "knowledge structure"?

A technical term in cognitive psychology for all of the interrelated concepts that a person has about a given subject.