Studied by 42 people
empiricism
the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 003)
structuralism
early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 004)
functionalism
early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 004)
experimental psychology
the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 005)
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 006, 266)
humanistic psychology
a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 006)
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 007, 119)
psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 007)
nature-nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 009)
natural selection
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 010, 135)
levels of analysis
the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 011)
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 011)
behavioral psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)
biological psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 012, 077)
cognitive psychology
the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 012, 135)
psychodynamic psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)
social-cultural psychology
the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)
psychometrics
the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 013)
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 462)
educational psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)
personality psychology
the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 754)
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)
industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 828)
human factors psychology
an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 828)
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 015)
positive psychology
the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 015, 590)
community psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 015)
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 016, 324)
SQ3R
a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 016)
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 031)
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 035)
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 038)
hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 038)
operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 039)
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 039)
case study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 040)
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 040)
survey
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 042)
sampling bias
a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 043)
population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 043)
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 043)
correlation
a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 046)
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1 to +1). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 046)
scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 046)
illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 050)
experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variables. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)
experimental group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)
control group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)
independent variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 052)
confounding variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 052)
dependent variable
the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 052)
validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content validity and predictive validity.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 053, 622)
descriptive statistics
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)
histogram
a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)
mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)
median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 057)
skewed distribution
a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 058)
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 058)
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 058)
normal curve (normal distribution)
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 059, 621)
inferential statistics
numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 060)
statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 060)
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 065, 776)
informed consent
an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 068)
debriefing
the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 068)
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 052)
biological psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 012, 077)
neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)
dendrites
a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)
axon
the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)
myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)
refractory period
(1) a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 079)
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)
all-or-none response
a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)
reuptake
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)
endorphins
"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 082)
agonist
a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 082)
antagonist
a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 083, 342)
nervous system
the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)
central nervous system (CNS)
the brain and spinal cord. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)
nerves
bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)
sensory (afferent) neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)
motor (efferent) neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)
interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. (Also called the skeletal nervous system.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)
