psych- biopsychology/ approaches

outline the behaviourist approach

• concerned with behaviour that can be observed and measured

• behaviourists rely on lab experiments to ensure control and objectivity

CC:

• CC is learning through association

• demonstrated by Pavlov

• Pavlov showed dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell

• the bell was repeatedly paired with food and started as a NS but became a CS which produced the CR of salivation

OC:

• researched by skinner

• positive reinforcement is receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed

• negative reinforcement occurs when someone avoids something unpleasant- the outcome is positive/rewarding- NR increases the likelihood of behaviour

• punishment is an unpleasant consequence of behaviour, a negative experience- decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated

• skinners box:

  • rats in boxes

  • every time the rat activated a lever it was rewarded a food pellet

  • from then on the rat would continue that behaviour

  • skinner also introduced electric shocks to act as NR

evaluate the behaviourist approach

strength

• lab research is well controlled

• a focus on measurable, observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings

• all EVs were therefore removed, allowing a cause and effect relationship to be established

• this makes it replicable and reliable and therefore has high scientific credibility

• real world application

• OC is the basis of token economies that have been used successfully in institutions such as prisons

• this works by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens which can be exchanged with privileges

• this increases the value of the approach

weakness

• environmental determinism

• the BA sees all behaviour as learnt by past conditioning experiences

• skinner suggested that everything we do is a sum of our reinforcement history

• this ignores the influence of free will

• ignores the influence of conscious decision making on behaviour

• animal research

• caution must be taken when applying it to humans

outline the social learning theory

• a way of explaining behaviour that involves direct and indirect reinforcement

• agrees with BA that behaviour is learnt through experiences but also says we can learn through observation and imitation

• identification is when an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like them

• vicarious reinforcement is reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour

• mediational processes are the cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response

• there were 4 mediational processes identified by bandura:

  • attention- taking notice of behaviour

  • retention- how well the behaviour is remembered

  • motor reproduction- the ability of the observer to perform behaviour

  • motivation- the will to perform behaviour, determined by whether the behaviour was punished or rewarded

• bandura recorded the behaviour of young kids who watched a video of an adult express aggressive behaviour towards a bobo doll

• when the children were later left alone with the bobo doll they imitated the behaviour and showed aggression

• boys showed more physical aggression but girls were more verbally aggressive

• kids were more likely to imitate behaviour if they identified with the role model

evaluate SLT

strengths

• takes into account more cognitive factors in learning

• CC and OC both can’t offer a valid cognitive explanation but SLT does

• suggests it is a more comprehensive definition by recognising the role of mediational processes

  • HOWEVER> SLT ignores biological factors

  • research suggests mirror neurons in the brain allow us to imitate people and copy their actions

  • this suggests our behaviour isn’t solely determined on the environment around us and SLT under-emphasises biological influences

weaknesses

• the use of lab studies in banduras research has been criticised as it has a risk of demand characteristics

• it has been suggested that the main purpose of the bobo doll is to hit it so children were just acting in a way they thought was expected

• this suggests research may tell us little about how kids actually learn aggression in everyday life

outline the cognitive approach

• CA argues that internal mental processes should be studied scientifically

• IMPs are the private functions of the mind and cannot be directly observed so we have to make inferences

• schema are the set of ideas/beliefs we have about things

• schemas are developed by experience

• act as a framework for interpreting incoming info received by the cognitive system

• as we get older our schemas become more complex and developed

• they enable us to process lots of info quickly which prevents us from getting overwhelmed however they can distort info

• in the CA we use models to represent the human mind

• models are a representation of something else

• in this case computer models are used to represent the processes of the human mind

• we take inputs, process info and output data just like a computer does

• another example of a model is the multistore model of memory

• models are often shown as diagrams or flowcharts and they are useful as they mean abstract processes can be represented as concrete images to make invisible processes visible

evaluate the cognitive approach

strengths

• the use of scientific methods

• CA employs highly controlled research methods to produce objective and measurable data

• in addition cognitive neuroscience has enabled the two fields of biology and cognitive psychology to come together to enhance the scientific basis of study

• this gives the approach high scientific credibility

• employed by psychologists as it forms the basis of many therapies such as CBT

• this shows it has practical applications

weakness

• machine reductionism

• there are similarities between the human mind and the computer model however it is too simplistic

• computers dont have emotions such as anxiety which us humans do and the computer model doesn’t account for motivation

• this suggests machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the approach

outline the biological approach

• suggests everything psychological is first biological so to fully understand the human behaviour we must study biological structures

• everything is innate and governed by biology

• twin studies are often used to determine whether a trait is genetic or not by comparing concordance rates of identical and non-identical twins

• identical twins chare 100% DNA whereas non-identical twins share 50% DNA

• genotype is the particular set of genes someone possesses

• phenotype is the characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment

• the theory of natural selection proposed by Darwin to suggest any genetic material can aid an individuals survival is passed onto offspring with the effect that only those with those alleles that allowed this behaviour will survive

• cognitive neuroscience applies brain scanning methods to our understanding of mental processes

evaluate the biological approach

strengths

• real world application

• increased understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain is associated with the use of psychoactive drugs to treat mental health conditions

• the biological approach has promoted the use of antidepressant drugs that increase levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin to reduce depressive symptoms

• this means people with depression may be able to better manage their symptoms

weakness

• not so objective methods

• a study by bennet involved a dead salmon being studied in an fMRI scanner

• when researchers started looking at the data, it appeared the fish’s brain was active and the data was changing

• of course this was not the case however it meant false positives made it look like some were active

• this suggests some biological methods may lack validity

• deterministic

• the approach suggests humans behaviour is decided by internal genetic causes over which we have no control

• however we have already seen that a person’s phenotype is heavily influenced by the environment

• the genetic argument becomes problematic when we consider factors such as crime, a violent criminal couldn’t just excuse their actions due to a certain crime gene

what are the subdivisions of the human nervous system

what is the nervous system

• a specialised network of cells in the human body and is our primary internal communication system

• based on electrical and chemical signals

explain the CNS

• made up of the brain and spinal cord

• the brain is the centre of all conscious awareness

• the CNS is the origin of all complex decisions and commands

• the spinal cord is an extension to the brain and passes messages to and from the brain

• the spinal cord connects nerves to the PNS and is responsible for reflex actions

explain the PNS

• PNS transmits messages via millions of neurons to and from the CNS

• it is further divided into the autonomic NS and the somatic NS

• the ANS governs vital functions of the body such as breathing, heart rate, digestion etc

• the SNS governs muscle movement and receives info from sensory receptors

• the ANS can be further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic NS

explain parasympathetic/ sympathetic NS

parasympathetic NS- this should be our default state where we are stress free and relaxed- known as the ‘rest and digest’ state, controls unconscious every day maintenance tasks which preserve energy

sympathetic NS- drives the body’s involuntary ‘fight or flight’ response, kicks into overdrive when faced with stress

explain the endocrine system

• works alongside the NS to control vital functions in the body

• the endocrine system works more slowly than the NS but has widespread effects

• it consists of glands which releases hormones

• hormones are secreted into the bloodstream to hit target organs with receptors for that specific hormone

• main glands and their hormones are:

  • pituitary gland> releases hormones from most other endocrine glands in the body

  • thyroid gland> releases thyroxine to control metabolic rate

  • adrenal gland> releases adrenaline to trigger the fight or flight response

explain how the ANS works with the endocrine system during flight or flight

• when stressor is perceived a signal is sent to the hypothalamus which activates the sympathetic nervous system and two pathways are simultaneously set in motion: fight or flight (SAM pathway) and the longer term HPA axis

• SAM pathway: sympathetic + adrenal medulla: the immediate fight or flight response which causes the adrenal glands to release stress hormone adrenaline

• adrenaline causes physiological changes in the body which happens in an instant as soon as stress is detected

• HPA axis: hypothalamic+ pituitary+ adrenal cortex: the longer term stress response- not part of fight or flight

• at the same time a signal is sent to the adrenal medulla, a signal is sent to the hypothalamus which sends a signal to the pituitary gland which releases cortisol

• cortisol helps deal with longer term stress

• parasympathetic action: one threat has finally passed the PSNS returns the body to its resting state

• it is antagonistic to the sympathetic NS

• rest and digest response

what are some changes to the body when the sympathetic NS is activated

1. increased heart rate

2. increased breathing rate

3. dilated pupils

4. inhibits digestion

5. inhibits saliva production

what are some changes to the body when the parasympathetic NS is activated

1. decreases heart rate

2. decreases breathing rate

3. constricts pupils

4. stimulates digestion

5. stimulation salivation

what are neurons

nerve cells which process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals

what are the three types of neurons

sensory

motor

relay

what does a sensory neuron do and name two features

carry messages from PNS to CNS

they have long dendrites and short axons

what does a motor neuron do and name two features

connects the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands

short dendrites and long axons

what does a relay neuron do and name two features

connects sensory neuron to motor neurons or other relay neurons

short dendrites and short axons

describe the structure of a neuron

• vary in size from less than a mm to up to a metre long

• cell body includes a nucleus (contains DNA)

• branchlike structures called dendrites (receive chemical messages from other neurons which may turn into electrical signals in the cell body)

• the axon carries the electrical signal away from cell body

• the axon is covered in a fatty layer of myelin sheath that protects the axon

• the myelin sheath is separated by the nodes of ranvier to speed up transmission by forcing electrical impulses to jump across the gaps

• at the end of the axon are terminal boutons that communicate with dendrites of other neurons across the synapse