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Advanced cities
Large population centers that serve as hubs for trade and craftsmanship.
City-states
Independent cities in Mesopotamia, such as Ur, Lagash, Uruk, and Umma, each with populations of at least 10,000 by 3000 B.C.E.
Specialized workers
Individuals skilled in specific trades, including artisans, merchants, and soldiers.
Artisans
Skilled craftsmen like potters, weavers, and metal workers.
Merchants
Individuals engaged in trade and marketing.
Soldiers
Protectors of the community.
Complex institutions
Long-lasting organizational patterns in a community, including government, religion, and education.
Government
An institution that creates and enforces laws.
Religion
Maintains religious sites and conducts rituals, including offerings to deities.
Education
Trains scribes for record-keeping.
Advanced technology
New tools and techniques developed to solve complex problems, such as the creation of bronze.
Record keeping
Documentation of important legal, historical, and economic records, often using bartering instead of currency.
Bartering
A trading system where goods are exchanged without currency.
Scribes
Record keepers who used cuneiform writing on clay tablets.
Cuneiform
A wedge-shaped writing system used by the Sumerians.
Mesopotamia
The land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, known for its fertile land.
Polytheistic
The belief in many gods, each controlling aspects of nature.
Akkadians
The first city-state in central Mesopotamia to dominate the region.
Hammurabi’s Code
The first written law code that established rights and punishments in society.
Hittites
A civilization that created a peace treaty with Egypt to avoid war.
Assyrians
A city-state that gained independence from Babylonian rule.
Nile
The river referred to by Herodotus as the "Gift of the Nile" for its importance to Egypt.
Egyptian Hieroglyphics
The writing system of ancient Egypt, consisting of sacred carvings.
Bartering in Egypt
The economy relied on trading goods, including crops and crafts.
Pharaoh
The ruler of Egypt, considered a living god.
Menes
The first Pharaoh who unified Egypt.
Pyramids
Tombs designed to help Pharaohs ascend to the heavens.
Rameses II
A significant Pharaoh known for expanding the empire and establishing peace treaties.
Kush
The kingdom in Nubia that took control of Egypt after Ramses II.
Subcontinent
A distinct area of Asia, defined by natural borders like the Himalayas.
Harappa civilization
An early civilization with a writing system similar to cuneiform.
Monsoons
Weather patterns that caused unpredictable flooding in the Indus River Valley.
Indus River Valley
The region now known as modern-day India/Pakistan.
Shang dynasty
The first Chinese dynasty with written records, lasting from 1600-1050 B.C.E.
Zhou dynasty
The longest ruling dynasty in China, lasting from 1027-265 B.C.E.
Hebrews
The chosen people of God who introduced monotheism.
Moses
A leader who guided the Hebrews during the Exodus and received the Ten Commandments.
Ten Commandments
A set of moral codes that influenced Jewish and Christian ethics.
Torah
The religious text of the Jews, traditionally attributed to Moses.
Kingdom of Israel
Established by King David, who made Jerusalem its capital.
Solomon’s Temple
A religious center built by King Solomon, significant for Jewish life.
Split of the Jewish Kingdom
After Solomon's death, Israel and Judah became two separate kingdoms.
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