Political spectrum and federalism

Marble Cake Federalism

A form of federalism where the lines between national and state powers are blurred, and the levels of government share responsibilities in many areas.

Layer Cake Federalism

A type of federalism where the national and state governments have distinct and separate powers, like the layers of a cake.

Dual Federalism

A system in which the federal and state governments remain strictly within their own spheres of influence, with little overlap.

Cooperative Federalism

A concept where national, state, and local governments work together to solve problems, with shared costs and administration.

Creative Federalism

A period where the federal government sought to bypass state governments by providing direct funding to local governments and non-governmental organizations.

Devolution

The process of transferring certain powers from the national government back to the state governments.

Block Grants

Federal grants given to state or local governments for broad purposes, allowing greater flexibility in how the money is spent.

Categorical Grants

Federal grants for specific purposes, such as building an airport or funding a Medicaid program, often with strict conditions on their use.

Grants-in-aid

Federal funds provided to states or localities, usually with conditions attached, to support a specific project or program.

Unfunded Mandates

Requirements imposed by the federal government on state or local governments without providing sufficient funds to cover the costs.

Funded Mandates

Federal laws that require states to take certain actions and provide funding to help implement those mandates.

Revenue Sharing

A practice where the federal government shares a portion of its revenue with state and local governments.

McCulloch v. Maryland

A landmark Supreme Court case that established the supremacy of federal law over state law and upheld the federal government's ability to create a national bank.

Gibbons v. Ogden

A Supreme Court decision that expanded federal power under the Commerce Clause by ruling that the federal government could regulate interstate commerce.

United States v. Lopez

A Supreme Court case that limited the federal government's power under the Commerce Clause, ruling that it could not regulate gun possession in school zones.

Selective incorporation

The process by which the Supreme Court has applied most of the Bill of Rights to the states through the 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause.

10th Amendment

Part of the Bill of Rights, it reserves powers not delegated to the federal government to the states or the people.

13th Amendment

Abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the United States, except as punishment for a crime.

14th Amendment

Provides equal protection under the law, grants citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S., and ensures due process at both the state and federal levels.

Americans with Disabilities Act

A federal law that prohibits discrimination based on disability and requires employers, public services, and public accommodations to provide reasonable accommodations.

Welfare Reform Act of 1996

Legislation that aimed to reduce dependence on government benefits by encouraging work and giving states more control over welfare programs.

Commerce Clause

A clause in the U.S. Constitution that gives Congress the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, between states, and with Native American tribes.

Clean Air Act

A federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level, which regulates emissions of hazardous air pollutants and establishes air quality standards.

Conservative

A political ideology that favors limited government intervention, individual responsibility, free-market capitalism, traditional values, and a strong national defense.

Liberal

A political ideology that favors government intervention in the economy, expanded civil rights, social programs, and progressive reforms to address inequality.

Radical

A political stance that seeks dramatic, fundamental changes to the political, social, or economic system, often advocating for revolution or a complete overhaul of the system.

Reactionary

A political perspective that seeks to return to a previous state of social, political, or economic order, opposing modern changes or progress.

Moderate

An individual with centrist views who may incorporate ideas from both liberal and conservative ideologies, often seeking practical solutions rather than adhering to a strict ideology.

Libertarian

A political ideology that advocates for minimal government intervention in both personal lives and the economy, prioritizing individual freedom.

Authoritarian

A political ideology that favors strong, centralized control over both political and social life, often at the expense of individual freedoms.

Cross-Cutting Cleavages

Social divisions, such as race, class, religion, or region, that cut across other differences and affect political behavior.

Political Socialization

The process by which individuals acquire their political beliefs and values, typically through influences such as family, education, media, and peers.

Political Spectrum

A system of classifying different political positions upon one or more geometric axes, reflecting ideological differences.

Straw Poll vs. Scientific Poll

A straw poll is an informal survey of opinion, often unscientific, while a scientific poll uses a representative sample, proper sampling methods, and statistical analysis to accurately gauge public opinion.

Representative Sample

A small quantity of something that accurately reflects the larger population from which it is drawn.

Entrance Survey

A poll conducted as voters enter a polling location to determine their opinions before they cast their votes.

Exit Poll

A survey conducted after voters leave polling stations, used to predict electoral outcomes based on how people voted.

Benchmark Poll

A poll taken at the beginning of a political campaign to gauge a candidate's initial standing and to develop campaign strategies.

Tracking Poll

A poll repeated at regular intervals to track changes in public opinion over time.

Random Digit Dialing

A method used to select people for involvement in telephone surveys by randomly generating telephone numbers.

Question Wording and Order

The specific phrasing and sequence of questions in a survey, which can significantly impact the results and responses.

Margin of Error

A measure of the potential error in a poll's results, indicating the range within which the true value lies, based on the sample size and method.

Random Sample/Selection

A sampling method in which every individual in the population has an equal chance of being chosen to ensure accurate representation.

Party Ideology

The system of beliefs, values, and goals that characterize a political party and shape its policy positions.

Party Identification

An individual's attachment or loyalty to a political party, often influenced by socialization, experiences, and beliefs.