Key Concepts in Classical and Operant Conditioning

classical conditioning

Learning by associating two stimuli together to trigger a response.

habituation

Decreased response to a stimulus after repeated exposure.

extinction in classical conditioning

When the conditioned response disappears after the CS is no longer paired with the US.

spontaneous recovery

The return of a conditioned response after a period of extinction.

stimulus generalization

Responding the same way to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

stimulus discrimination

Learning to tell the difference between similar stimuli.

higher-order conditioning

A new neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an existing CS.

delayed conditioning

NS is presented just before and overlaps with the US — best method.

trace conditioning

NS is presented and removed before the US — there's a gap.

backward conditioning

US is presented before the NS — usually weak learning.

exposure therapy

Gradual exposure to feared stimuli to reduce anxiety.

aversive conditioning

Associating bad behavior with something unpleasant to stop it.

taste aversion

Avoiding a food after one bad experience (e.g. getting sick).

biological preparedness

Animals are predisposed to learn some associations more easily.

operant conditioning

Learning based on the consequences of behavior.

positive reinforcement

Adding something good to increase behavior.

negative reinforcement

Removing something bad to increase behavior.

positive punishment

Adding something bad to decrease behavior.

negative punishment

Taking away something good to decrease behavior.

continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.

partial reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time.

fixed ratio schedule

Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

variable ratio schedule

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.

fixed interval schedule

Reinforcement after a set amount of time.

variable interval schedule

Reinforcement after an unpredictable amount of time.

primary reinforcer

A naturally satisfying reward (e.g., food, sleep).

secondary reinforcer

Something that gets its value through association (e.g., money, praise).

token economy

Earning tokens for good behavior to trade for rewards.

shaping

Reinforcing small steps toward a desired behavior.

algorithm

A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution.

heuristic

A mental shortcut used to solve problems quickly.

representative heuristic

Judging based on how well something matches a stereotype.

availability heuristic

Judging based on how easily something comes to mind.

mental set

Using past solutions that may not work in new situations.

sunk cost fallacy

Continuing something because of past investment, even if it's no longer worth it.

observational learning

Learning by watching others.

modeling

Imitating someone's behavior.

vicarious reinforcement

Imitating a behavior after seeing someone else get rewarded for it.

expectancy

The belief that behavior will lead to a desired outcome.

instinctive drift

Animals reverting to natural behaviors despite conditioning.

superstitions in behavior

Random behaviors reinforced by chance.

learned helplessness

Giving up after repeated failures.