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Absolute Location

Exact location using coordinates. Example: Atlanta at 33.7490°N, 84.3880°W.

Relative Location

Location compared to other places. Example: Atlanta is north of Macon.

Distance Decay

Interaction decreases as distance increases. Example: People shop at nearby stores more often.

Space-Time Compression

Technology reduces the effect of distance. Example: Air travel and the internet connect distant places quickly.

GIS (Geographic Information Systems)

Technology that layers geographic data for analysis. Example: Crime mapping and election maps.

Remote Sensing

Collecting information from satellites or aircraft. Example: Monitoring deforestation from space.

Arithmetic Density

Total population divided by total land area.

Physiological Density

Population divided by arable land; shows pressure on farmland.

Agricultural Density

Number of farmers divided by arable land.

Choropleth Map

Map using colors/shading to show data. Example: Population density by state.

Dot Density Map

Map using dots to represent quantities. Example: Distribution of cattle.

Graduated Symbol Map

Map using different-sized symbols. Example: City population circles.

Cartogram

Map distorted to represent data. Example: Countries resized by population.

Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

Model showing population change over time through 5 stages.

DTM Stage 1

High birth rate + high death rate = little growth. Example: No country today.

DTM Stage 2

High birth rate + falling death rate = rapid growth. Example: Niger.

DTM Stage 3

Falling birth rate + low death rate = slowing growth. Example: India.

DTM Stage 4

Low birth rate + low death rate = stable population. Example: United States.

DTM Stage 5

Very low birth rate = population decline. Example: Japan.

Expansive Population Pyramid

Wide base; rapid population growth. Example: Nigeria.

Stationary Population Pyramid

Rectangular shape; slow growth. Example: United States.

Constrictive Population Pyramid

Narrow base; aging population. Example: Japan.

Push Factors

Reasons people leave a place. Example: War, famine, persecution.

Pull Factors

Reasons people move to a place. Example: Jobs, education, safety.

Internal Migration

Movement within a country. Example: Rural Texas to Dallas.

International Migration

Movement across national borders. Example: Mexico to United States.

Forced Migration

Migration without choice. Example: Refugees.

Voluntary Migration

Migration by personal choice. Example: Moving for a job.

Ravenstein's Laws

Most migrants move short distances, move step-by-step, and head toward cities.

Culture

Shared beliefs, customs, traditions, and values of a group.

Cultural Hearth

Place where a culture originated. Example: Fertile Crescent.

Relocation Diffusion

Spread of ideas through migration. Example: Christianity to the Americas.

Contagious Diffusion

Rapid spread through direct contact. Example: Viral internet trend.

Hierarchical Diffusion

Spread from important people/places to others. Example: Fashion trends.

Reverse Hierarchical Diffusion

Trait spreads from lower-status groups to higher-status groups. Example: Walmart-style retail innovations spreading upward.

Stimulus Diffusion

Idea spreads but is modified. Example: Fast-food menus adapted in India.

Expansion Diffusion

Spread of a trait without migration.

Indo-European Language Family

Largest language family. Examples: English, Spanish, Hindi, Russian.

Universalizing Religion

Religion that seeks converts. Examples: Christianity, Islam, Buddhism.

Ethnic Religion

Religion tied to a specific group or region. Examples: Hinduism, Judaism, Sikhism.

Hinduism Hearth

India; spread mainly through relocation diffusion.

Buddhism Hearth

India; spread mainly through hierarchical diffusion.

Judaism Hearth

Israel; spread mainly through relocation diffusion.

Christianity Hearth

Jerusalem/Israel; spread mainly through hierarchical diffusion.

Islam Hearth

Mecca and Medina; spread mainly through relocation diffusion.

Cultural Landscape

Visible imprint of culture on the environment. Example: Churches, temples, mosques.

Cultural Convergence

Cultures become more similar due to interaction and globalization.

Cultural Divergence

Cultures become less similar as groups maintain unique traditions.

Ethnocentrism

Belief that one's culture is superior to others.

Cultural Appropriation

Adopting cultural traits without understanding or respecting their meaning.

Nation

Group of people sharing culture, history, or identity.

State

Political unit with population, territory, government, and sovereignty.

Nation-State

State whose population is mostly one nation. Example: Japan.

Multinational State

State containing multiple nations. Example: Russia.

Stateless Nation

Group without its own state. Example: Kurds.

Sovereignty

State's authority over its territory and affairs.

Consequent Boundary

Created before major settlement. Example: US-Canada 49th parallel.

Subsequent Boundary

Created after settlement based on cultural differences. Example: India-Pakistan.

Superimposed Boundary

Boundary imposed by outside powers. Example: Colonial Africa.

Relic Boundary

Former boundary that no longer functions politically. Example: East/West Germany.

Centripetal Forces

Forces that unite a country. Examples: Nationalism, common language, shared religion.

Centrifugal Forces

Forces that divide a country. Examples: Ethnic conflict, separatism, inequality.

Federal State

Power shared between national and regional governments. Example: United States.

Unitary State

Most power held by central government. Example: France.

Territorial Waters

Waters extending 12 nautical miles from shore.

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

Area extending 200 nautical miles where a state controls resources.

Devolution

Transfer of power from central government to regional governments. Example: Scotland.

Ethnic Separatism

Group seeks independence based on ethnicity. Example: Quebec movement.

Ethnic Cleansing

Removal of an ethnic group from an area. Example: Bosnia in the 1990s.

Irredentism

Claiming territory because of shared ethnicity. Example: Russia and Crimea.

Subnationalism

Strong identity within part of a country. Example: Catalonia.

Balkanization

Breakup of a region into smaller hostile states. Example: Yugoslavia.

United Nations (UN)

Promotes peace, security, and human rights worldwide.

European Union (EU)

Economic and political union with a single market and free trade.

ASEAN

Promotes economic cooperation among Southeast Asian countries.

African Union (AU)

Promotes cooperation and development across Africa.

World Trade Organization (WTO)

Promotes fair international trade rules.

USMCA

Trade agreement replacing NAFTA among United States, Mexico, and Canada.

OPEC

Coordinates petroleum policies among oil-exporting countries.

NATO

Mutual defense alliance between North American and European countries.

Subsistence Agriculture

Farming mainly for family consumption. Example: Rural African farm.

Commercial Agriculture

Farming mainly for profit. Example: Brazilian soybean farm.

Intensive Agriculture

High labor/capital inputs on small land areas. Example: Rice farming in China.

Extensive Agriculture

Low inputs over large land areas. Example: Cattle ranching in western US.

Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

High labor farming to feed local families. Example: Wet-rice farming in China.

Intensive Commercial Agriculture

Heavy capital investment for high yields. Example: Dairy farming in Denmark.

Extensive Commercial Agriculture

Large-scale profit farming with fewer inputs. Example: Wheat farming in the Great Plains.

Extensive Subsistence Agriculture

Low-input farming in harsh environments. Example: Nomadic herding in Mongolia.

Shifting Cultivation

Slash-and-burn farming common in tropical regions.

Plantation Agriculture

Large farm growing one cash crop for export. Example: Coffee plantation.

Pastoral Nomadism

Seasonal movement of livestock. Example: Camel herding in North Africa.

Agricultural Hearth

Region where agriculture originated. Example: Fertile Crescent.

Von Thünen Model

Model showing agricultural land use around a market based on transportation costs.

Von Thünen Order

Market → Dairy → Forest → Grain → Ranching.

Green Revolution

Development of high-yield crops and modern farming techniques.

Seed Hybridization

Crossbreeding plants to increase yields and disease resistance.

Green Revolution Positive

Increased food production and reduced hunger.

Green Revolution Negative

Increased inequality because poor farmers could not afford new technology.

Metes and Bounds Survey System

Uses natural features and landmarks; irregular boundaries.

Township and Range Survey System

Grid system creating square plots; common in US.