AP Psychology - Unit Two

nature

the influence of genetics and biological factors on behavior, traits, and mental proccesses

nuture

the influence of genetics and environment, including upbringing, culture, and life experience

nature vs nurture

commonly debated amongst psychologist how much each factors contributes to human developement with most agreeing that both interact dynamically

genetic predisposition

meaning an indivdual may be more likely to develop a certain trait or condition based on their genes, but environmental factors influence whether it manifests

evolutionary perspective

how does natural selection shape behaviors and psychological traits?

key ideas of evolution perspective

traits enhacing survival and reproductive are usually passed down; psychological traits can be analyzed through this lens

eugenics

a practice that is unethical and strives to improve the genetic quality of humans through selective breeding

twin studies

used to find the difference in nature vs. nurture

___ twins share 100% of genes.

monozygotic/identical

___ twins share 50% of genes.

dizygotic/fraternal

high similarity in identical twin studies suggest a ___ influence.

genetic

differences in identical twin studies suggest a ___ influence.

environmental

____ studies help separate genetic from environmental influences

adoption

nervous system

the body’s communication system consists of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system, and is responsible for transmitting signals between different body parts.

centeral nervous system (CNS)

the brain and the spinal cord; the body’s decision maker

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body; gathers info

nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables that connect the CNS with muscles, glands, and sensory organs

sensory neurons are also known as ___.

afferent neurons.

motor neurons are also known as ___.

efferent neurons.

sensory neurons

carry messages from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the CNS

motor neurons

carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and sensory organs

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally; process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

division within the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles; skeletal nervous system

autonomic nervous systems

division in the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and muscles of internal organs (eg. heart); self-regulatory

sympathetic nervous system

division in the peripheral nervous system that expends energy; fight or flight; accelerates heart beat, slows digestion, and makes you alert

parasympathetic nervous system

division in the autonomic nervous system that conserves energy and calms you; rest and digest

the ___ work together to keep the body at homeostasis.

sympathetic and parasympathetic

reflex

a simple automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk reflex.

neurons

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

multiple sclerosis

occurs as a result of the myelin sheath deteriorating; symptos include slower reaction time and diminished control; in general, the communication to the mucle and brain reigons slows

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support nourish, and protect neurons; may play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

resting potential

the neuron’s stable negative charge when not firing (~ -70mV)

depolarization

a shift in a neuron's charge towards a less negative state, as Na+ ions rush in, making the inside more positive, triggering an action potential

firing threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

in neural roccessing; brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

all-or-nothing principle

a neuron’s reaction of firing at full-stregnth or not firing at all

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neurons and the recieving neuron’s dendrite

neurotransmitter

chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons

reuptake

the process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the neuron that released them, terminating the signal

dopamine (type of neurotransmitter)

excitatory & inhibitory

seratonin (type of neurotransmitter)

inhibitory

norepinephrine (type of neurotransmitter)

excitatory

glutamate (type of neurotransmitter)

excitatory

acetylcholine (ACh) (type of neurotransmitter)

excitatory

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) (type of neurotransmitter)

inhibitory

endorphins (type of neurotransmitter)

inhibitory

substance P (type of neurotransmitter)

excitatory

dopamine (function)

influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

seratonin (function)

affects mood hunger, sleep, and arousal

norepinephrine (function)

helps control alertness and arousal

glutamate (function)

a major excitatory neurotransmitter; helps memory

acetylcholine (ACh) (function)

enables muscle action, learning, attention, & emotion

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) (function)

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter

endorphins (function)

influences the perception of pain or pleasure

substance P (function)

involved in pain perception and immune responsee

excitatory neurotransmitter

increases the liklihood that a neuron will fire an action potential by depolarizing the membrane

inhibtory neurotransmitter

decreases the liklihood that a neuron will fire on action potential by hyperpolarizing the mebrane

myasthenia gravis

an autoimmune disorder where the body attacks (ACh) receptors; symporms include muscle weakness and fatigue

agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action

antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action

endocrine system

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete horomones into the bloodstream

horomones

chemical messengers that are manugactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

adrenaline & noradrenaline

increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar - providing energy to power the fight-or-flight response; the horomones and feelings linger after the emergency ends

pituitary gland

pea-sized structure in the core of the brain controlled by the hypothalamus; releases horomones

growth horomone

stimulates physical development

adrenaline (function)

triggers the fight-or-flight response

leptin (function)

regulates hunger and energy balance

ghrelin (function)

increases appetite and promotes food intake; stimulates hungerme

melatonin (function)

regulates sleep wake cycleso

oxytocin (function)

known as the “love horomone”; involved in bonding, trust, and social connections

adrenaline (produced by)

adrenal glands

leptin (produced by)

fat cells (adipose tissue)

ghrelin (produced by)

stomach

melatonin (produced by)

pineal gland

oxytocin (produced by)

hypothalamus

psychoactive drugs

a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moodsde

depressants

slows nervous system activity

stimulants

speeds up nervous system activity

hallucinogens

alters perception and reality

tolerance

builds up over time; when the body requires more of a drug to achieve the same effect

dependence

a physical or psychological need for a drug

depressant examples

alcohol & opioids

alcohol (functions)

enhances GABA → leads to relaxation

alcohol (effects)

impaired coordination, slowed reaction time, reduces inhibitions

alcohol (risks)

memory impairement, alcohol poisoning, liver damage, and addiction

opioids (functions)

mimics endorphins (natural painkillers)

opioids (effects)

pain relief, drowsiness, and euphoria (effects)

opioids (risks)

highly addictive, respiratory failture, sever withdrawl symptoms

stimulant examples

caffine & cocaine

caffine (function)

blocks adenosine (which makes you sleepy)

caffine (effects)

increased energy, alertness, and heart rate

caffine (risks)

dependence, insomnia, withdrawl headaches, can cause anxiety

cocaine (functions)

blocks dopamine reuptake - flooding the brain with dopamine

cocaine (effects)

intense euphoria, increased energy, alertness

cocaine (risks)

heart attack, paranoia, severe addiction, and withdrawl depression

hallucineogen example

marijuana

marijuana (functions)

activates cannabinoid receptors, affecting dopamine release

marijuana (effects)

altered perception, relaxation, and mild euphoria

marijuana (risks)

impaired memory, anxiety, potential psychological dependence