Exam 2 Study Guide - Part 2 (Unit 4, Chapters 5 & 6)

(Leadership & Power) Psyc344: Group Dynamics

Trait Theories of Leadership (weak theory that doesn’t weigh much)

Leaders are born, not made. “Great man/woman”  

Which traits are essential for leadership?  

• Findings: intelligence, initiative, sense of humor, extroversion, personal adjustment, etc.  

• BUT little predictive value  

Trait Theories of Leadership (weak theory that doesn’t weigh much)

Leaders are born, not made. “Great man/woman”  

Which traits are essential for leadership?  

• Findings: intelligence, initiative, sense of humor, extroversion, personal adjustment, etc.  

• BUT little predictive value  

Problems with the trait theory: 

• Unlimited number of traits can be identified  

• Different traits are needed under different conditions  

  • Clusters of traits may meet demands of society  

• “great leaders” are identified after the fact (not predicted)  

  • Many people with these traits never become leaders 

Charismatic leaders have

• An extraordinary vision they are able to communicate well  

• Unusual power of leadership  

• Sense of mission, a belief in the social change movement they lead  

• Self-confidence  

Machiavellian leaders believe:  

• People are basically weak, fallible, and gullible and not really trustworthy  

• Others are impersonal objects  

• One should manipulate others when necessary in order to achieve one’s goals 

• Don’t care about relationships, low degree of ideological commitment 

Lewin, Lippitt, and White (1939)-relationship between leadership style and productivity: 

• Autocratic

• *Democratic

• Laissez-faire

Autocratic

• dictate, “my way or high way” (hostility, aggressive acts more common) 

*Democratic

• listen to members, discuss, considerate of feelings and needs, “most liked” (Children under a democratic leader took more initiative, responsibility, friendlier, interest in work and quality higher) 

Laissez-faire

• do not participate in the group discussion process, “hands off” (aggressive acts more common) 

Most effective leadership style

• is showing concern for group members well-being and initiating group structure by clearly defining one’s role as leader and clarifying expectations of members.   

  • Leadership style also depends on situation 

Influence Theory of Leadership (ppl with inner power + influence become leaders)

• Reciprocal role relationship between leaders and followers (social media influencer) 

• Leader gets status, recognition, esteem  

• Follower gets resources and direction  

• Person who participates more emerges as leader because they are perceived to be more motivated, serious, willing to share resources and attain group goal 

What rewards does a leader get from leading?

Respect

What rewards does a follower get from following a leader?

Reward

When do members comply?  

• When leader has power to punish, leader convinces members that demands are good for group, has legitimate right to make demands of subordinates 

Effective leadership does not mean domination:  

• Getting groups to cooperate to achieve goal, persuasion, encouragement, negotiation (a lot of) 

• You WANT to be the boss of everyone. But that is never going to happen unless everyone WANTS you to be their boss.  

• If you’re competitive, uncooperative, unwilling to compromise, eventually people are going to leave. You can’t be a leader if you don’t have followers.  

• What happens to dictators and tyrants? They get beheaded. You have to let people have a voice or they will metaphorically behead you. If you are not open to what others in your group say, you dismiss people, shut them down, think you’re always right, you’ll be banished from the group.  

• You THINK that you can get by without working with other people, you can’t.  

• You WILL be in groups throughout your life that you cannot afford to be banished from. The world is moving more and more towards collaboration, you can’t get away from it.   

Role Position Approach to Leadership

Theory posits that a leader is a person who holds a position of authority (very vage) 

Problems with explaining leadership through this theory

• Unclear how someone gets into a leadership position. People are given leadership positions for many reasons.  

• Leaders don’t always display leadership behaviors, and subordinates often engage in leadership actions 

• Subordinates will be influenced by outsiders 

Situational Theories of Leadership: The distributed actions theory of leadership  

• Any group member may become a leader by taking action to help the group  

• Any leadership action can be fulfilled by different members

  • Goal leadership actions (group members must summarize, coordinate information/resources, structure and direct groups efforts, provide energy to motivate group members) 

  • Relationship leadership actions (listen carefully, respect one another, encourage participation, relieve tension, assess emotional climate of group) 

• Leadership is specific to a particular group in a particular situation  

  • Members assess what is needed at time  

• Benefits (Members resources utilized, members who participate more committed to group, unequal patterns of participation create relationship patterns. Members worried or annoyed by silent members; silent members perceived as not caring about goal achievement.) 

• Interaction  

• Process Analysis (leadership roles tend to emerge)

  • task-leadership role (directing, summarizing, providing ideas) 

  • social-emotional leadership role (maintenance) - emotional leadership role (expressive, interpersonal affairs: alleviating frustrations, resolving tension, mediating conflicts; encouraging, participation, listening to members etc..) 

Organizational Leadership

• Leading an organization involves:  

• Challenging the status quo 

  • Challenging the status quo-conflict between security of the past and new growth and innovation. Leaders highlight that if members are not working to increase expertise, they’re losing expertise. Expertise is process. Professors get funds for professional development. 

• Inspiring a clear mutual vision  

• Empowering members through cooperative teamwork  

• Leading by example  

• Encouraging the hearts of group members to persist  

  • Enthusiastically communicate vision. Organization is place where members share, help and encourage each other. A shared vision is important. Vision must be rational, backed by theory and practice. 

Power

• Defined as the capacity to affect the outcomes of oneself, others, and the environment 

• The use of power can be: 

  • direct (In Interpersonal, Intergroup Interaction)  

    or

  • indirect (Through Group Norms, Values, Traditions) 

High Power Individuals & Using Power Constructively – Real-Life Examples

• A CEO can use their authority to promote ethical business practices, ensuring employees are treated fairly and fostering an inclusive workplace. 

• A Star Athlete can use their influence to raise awareness for mental health in sports, encouraging younger athletes to seek help when needed. 

• A Lawyer can offer pro bono legal services to people who can’t afford representation, ensuring justice is accessible to all. 

• A Social Media Influencer can use their platform to spread awareness about important social issues, like climate change or voter registration. 

• A Teacher can empower students by encouraging critical thinking and confidence, helping them develop into informed and responsible adults. 

How group members in a group can use power constructively: 

• A student who is naturally good at public speaking can take the lead in presentations, helping their group deliver ideas clearly. 

• A student who is good at planning and organizing can help keep the group on track by setting deadlines, assigning tasks fairly, and making sure everyone participates. 

• Someone who enjoys finding reliable information can contribute by gathering useful sources, summarizing complex ideas, and helping the group understand difficult concepts. 

• A student who has strong social skills can boost morale, resolve conflicts, and make sure everyone feels included and valued in the group 

Power

• Power exists in relationships, not in individuals 

• The direct use of power can be examined from two points of view: the dynamic interdependence perspective and the trait factor perspective. In addition, the use of power can be purposeful or non-purposeful.  

• Two Major Theories:  

  • Dynamic-Interdependence

  • Trait Factor

Dynamic-Interdependence

• Who Influences Whom Changes Constantly As Individuals Strive To Achieve Mutual Goals  

Trait Factor

• Disposition To Exert Power Over Other People  

An example of how power is dynamic in a class group

• Imagine a class group working on a project. At first, the most confident and outspoken student (Alex) takes charge, organizing the tasks and setting deadlines. However, when the group struggles with research, another student (Jordan), who is skilled at finding credible sources, naturally gains influence. Later, when the group needs to design a presentation, another member (Taylor), who has strong creative skills, becomes the go-to decision-maker.  

• It shifts based on the group's needs and the strengths of different individuals. No single person holds power permanently; instead, it flows to those who can best contribute at a given 

Constructive Use of Power

• Increases Group Effectiveness, Benefits All Group Members, Encouraged By All Group Members  

Destructive Use of Power

• Increases Self-Benefit, Forces Others To Do Something They Do Not Wish To Do (domination) 

How can power be used constructively?

When used to enhance achievement of groups goals, used for others benefit, common good, invited/not imposed by others. Constructive when increases group effectiveness, benefits and encourages all group members. Many think that power is destructive.  

Power Exists In Relationships. Power Is

• Inevitable

• Essential

• Dynamic

• Distributed

Inevitable

assumes power exists in all relationships. In small groups, mutual influence goes on continuously as group members act and react and adjust to one another’s actions. 

Essential

assumes the use of power is essential to all aspects of group functioning—goal setting, communication, leadership, decision making, conflict resolution.

Dynamic

focuses on the changing nature and patterns of influence within a group as members strive to achieve mutual goals rather than on who possesses power. 

Distributed

stresses that power is distributed among all group members and that every group member has some influence over every other group member and over what takes place in the group.

Context determines how power is used

• Competitive  

• Cooperative 

Power in Competitive Context 

• Defined as: successful influence that overcomes the other’s unwillingness to perform the desired behavior.   

• Currently dominating approach among social scientists and power holders  

• Power is viewed as:   

  • A fixed-pie resource  

  • A zero-sum resource  

  • A commodity to be accumulated  

  • Acting in a unidirectional way  

  • Inherently coercive  

• Limits other uses of power (based on trust and power sharing)  

• Evokes reactance 

• In competitive context power is thought to be successfully influencing someone to do something they would not otherwise have done.  

  • Fixed pie: limited amount of power. 

  • Zero-sum: if A has more power, B must have less (only so much less available).  

• Power used to benefit the entire group.   

• Reactance: trying to re-establish one’s freedom 

Power in Cooperative Context

• Defined as: successful influence used to maximize joint benefits, and enhance the group’s effectiveness   

• Power is viewed as  

  • Expandable  

  • To be shared  

  • Acting in a bidirectional way  

  • Inherently noncoercive  

• Largely ignored in the literature, inducibility*  

• Inducibility: open to others’ influence 

Mobilizing Power to Achieve Goals

1. Determine your goals: Goals are desired future states based on wants, needs, and interests. 

2. Determining your relevant resources: contribute your resources to achieving the group’s goals and your personal goals 

3. Determining your needed coactions: to as­sess what coalitions you need to secure the resources you must have to achieve your goals. 

4. Negotiating contracts: to negotiate an agreement with the appropriate group members to mutually support one anoth­er's efforts to achieve goals. In planning how resources should be utilized to help achieve the goals, group members often develop formal or informal contracts with one another. 

5. Implementing the contracts: to carry out the activities necessary to achieve the goals. 

Trait factor theory of power:

• Power is a genetically inherited trait or disposition. Weak logically and empirically in situations where people are constantly interacting. (not a lot of credibility) 

• Social dominance theory

Social dominance theory

a trait factor theory of power directly based on competition. 

• Hierarchy created when members vary in ability to control resources.  

• People acquire resources by forming coalitions with others (coalition is resource as well, because those in coalitions do better), motivation to dominate is a trait.   

• Not an organizational method, then; it is a natural consequence of differences in individuals’ abilities to compete 

Social exchange theory

power is based on the control of valuable resources. If someone has a resource that you want, they have power over you. The type of resource -> basis for power (French & Raven, 1959)  

Bases of power

• Reward power

• Coercive power

• Legitimate power

• Referent power

• Expert power

• Informational power

Reward power

ability to deliver positive consequences and remove negative ones. More power when people value reward, belief that person can dispense, less chance of receiving reward from someone else. Too many rewards lead to suspicion of bribing. 

• Ex: give dog a treat 

Coercive power

ability to deliver negative consequences and remove positive. Increases pressure on group members to engage in desired behavior. However, punishment discourages group members from interacting with person in future. Avoidance and dislike.   

• Ex: teacher threat with detention 

Legitimate power

social role 

• Ex: police/cops 

Referent power

identify with person and want to be like them.   

• Ex: social media influencer promotes products 

Expert power

has skills and competencies useful for accomplishing goal and not used anywhere else 

• Ex: doctors vs interns 

Informational power

useful information (rational argument, facts, logic) 

• Ex: journalist having secret information 

Power and Problem Solving

• Groups are more effective at solving problems when   

  • Power is relatively balanced among its members  

  • Power is based upon competence, expertise, and information  

  • Power is equal (more cooperative, more responsive, and more committed to implementing the group decision) 

  • Decisions are based on higher quality 

• Distributed power: groups solve problems better, members more committed, cooperative (share resources).

High Power Members

• Happy with the situation  

• Hard to move toward cooperation, conciliation, and compromise   

• Two strategies to keep the status quo:  

  • Institute rules and norms to legitimize their power (“might-is-right”). Reject demands for change.  

  • Deter low-power group members from rocking the boat by applying carrot and stick method (“if-only-you-would-behave-neither-of-us-would-go-through-this-suffering”) 

• The metamorphic effects of high power: 

1. Power becomes a goal in and of itself  

2. Use power for own benefit at expense of others  

3. Receive unwarranted feedback—inflated self worth  

4. Devaluation of others  

5. Overstep bounds of appropriate use of power 

Status and Power

• High status positions can lead to a sense that one is entitled  

• Status and power not always hand in hand  

  • High status/high power—enhanced self perception, disdain for low status/low power members  

  • High status/low power—felt under rewarded, attempted to obtain increased rewards from group, emphasized negative aspects of high power members 

 

Power Stereotyping Theory: High power individuals more likely to stereotype subordinates

• lack cognitive capacity/pay less attention to them  

• view subordinates as unimportant 

Oppression: High power members likely to oppress lower power members

• institutionalized  

• can lead to extreme effects (apartheid, genocide) 

High Power Strategies To Justify Status Quo (LEAD):

• L = Legitimize Own Privileges And Intimidate Low-Power Individuals  

• E = Self-Enhancement  

• A = Attribute Low-Power People’s Success To Own Control (they are responsible for the success of low power individuals)  

• D = Devalue Low-Power Individuals And Their Contributions (also tendency to see the worst in others) 

Low Power Members

• Build Coalitions  

• Educate And Morally Persuade  

• Bring High-Power Group Members To Negotiating Table:  

  • Use Existing Legal Procedures To Pressure For Change  

  • Use Obstruction Or Harassment To Increase High-Power Members’ Costs  

• Metamorphic Effects Of Low-Power:

  • chronic low power changes a person, becomes more accepting of brutality  

  • Relationships Among Low-Power Groups 

  • Revenge 

• May act positively towards each other because they are in similar circumstances. However, evidence that when low power group gains power, other low power groups react negatively to success and positively to high power groups success. 

 

Low-Power Strategies To Change Status Quo (CORE)

• C = Cooperative, Compliant, Yielding To High- Power Members  

• O = Attribution Of Causes Of Group Successes To Own Efforts (defy threats, counter-threaten, refuse to comply even when resistance is costly. Low power members anxiety because actions of high power unpredictable. Leads to: increased vigilance to understand/predict high power, stifling criticism of high power, unwillingness to clarify position to high power, fear and attraction to high power. Also try to get on good side of high power. Reactance to regain freedom and control.) 

• R = Resistance, Psychological Reactance, Obstruction Of High-Power Members’ Efforts  

• E = Negative Evaluations Of High-Power Members (dislike high power, distorted perceptions that underestimate positive intent of high power members, see high power members as competitors.) 

Group Norms: Conforming To Group Norms

• Conformity: Changes In Behavior Resulting From Group Influences  

• Compliance: Behavioral Change Without Internal Acceptance 

Group Norms: Implementing Group Norms

• Explicitly stating: I think we should stop messing around and get to work  

• Modeling  

• Other groups  

• Culture: social responsibility (fair play, don’t lie, help people) 

  • Pressure to conform to group norms is an indirect use of power. 

What happens if you don’t conform to the group norms?

• You get banished. The pressure to conform to group norms is immense. Activity on first day of class. Laughing relieving tension.   

• Conformity can be beneficial for all members of group, don’t need to violate principles to conform.   

• Group norms deal primarily with behaviors affecting completion of task and ability of group to maintain itself over time.   

The Group Mind

• In Mob Individuals Act Impulsively Unreasonably, Extreme Ways  

  • Anonymity: People Feel Less Responsible For Actions 

  • Contagion: Emotion States Spreads From Person To Person

• Collective Behavior

• Convergence Theory

• Emergent Norm Theory 

• Deindividuation

 

Collective Behavior

Spontaneously Perform Atypical Actions Such As Riots Or Mass Hysteria  

Convergence Theory

• People With Compatible Motivations Release Previously Controlled Behaviors. Members bring common mood, eventually act out on that mood.   

Emergent Norm Theory

• Members are not unified, but in the moment and with the sense of urgency, norms emerge. Members become highly suggestible to norms.  

Deindividuation

• State Of Relative Anonymity, Members Do Not Feel Identifiable, feel disinhibited to perform antisocial acts.   

Deindividuation Conditions and State

• Conditions: anonymity, large group, lack of feeling of personal responsibility, arousal  

• State: loss of self awareness, inhibited speech, performing uninhibited tasks, experience is altered (disturbances in concentration and judgment, feeling like time is moving slowly, extreme emotions, a sense of unreality, distorted perceptions).