Diabetes Mellitus Review: Chapter 51

Vocabulary flashcards covering the pathophysiology, clinical signs, diagnostic tests, treatments, and chronic complications of Diabetes Mellitus as discussed in the lecture notes.

Normal Blood Sugar

A blood glucose level ranging from $70\text{--}110$.

Diabetes Mellitus

A metabolic disorder of the pancreas that affects carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism.

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

Also known as insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), it is an autoimmune disorder characterized by no insulin production by the beta cells in the islets of Langerhans.

Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Also known as non–insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), it is characterized by insulin resistance or insufficient insulin production and often runs in families.

Pre-diabetes (Fasting Glucose)

A state where a person has a fasting blood glucose level of $100\text{--}125\text{ mg/dL}$ after an overnight fast.

Pre-diabetes (Oral Glucose Tolerance)

A state where a person has a blood glucose level of $140\text{--}199\text{ mg/dL}$ after a glucose tolerance test lasting $2\text{ hours}$.

Hyperglycemia

An elevated blood glucose level.

Lipolysis

The breakdown of fat that results in the accumulation of fatty acids and ketones.

Ketones

Metabolic byproducts of fat metabolism.

Ketoacidosis (DKA)

A form of metabolic acidosis resulting from the accumulation of ketones in the blood, common in Type 1 diabetes due to total cessation of insulin production.

Insulin Resistance

A condition linked to obesity where blood glucose remains elevated because the body's cells do not respond effectively to insulin.

Hyperinsulinemia

A condition where the beta cells secrete excessive insulin to compensate for insulin resistance, which eventually exhausts the beta cells.

Glycosuria

The presence of glucose in the urine, which typically appears when blood glucose levels rise above $180\text{ mg/dL}$.

Polyuria

Excessive urine production caused by high sugar levels pulling fluid into the bloodstream.

Polydipsia

Excessive thirst that develops as a result of water loss from polyuria.

Polyphagia

Excessive hunger and eating that occurs because the body cannot effectively use glucose for fuel.

Ketonemia

Increased ketones in the blood leading to acidosis.

Kussmaul Respirations

Fast, deep, and labored breathing common in ketoacidosis as a compensatory mechanism for acidosis.

Acetone Breath

A characteristic fruity odor on the breath of a client in ketoacidosis.

Glycosylated Hemoglobin (Hemoglobin A1c)

A test reflecting the average blood glucose level over the life span of a hemoglobin molecule ($120\text{ days}$); results of 8\text{%} or greater indicate inadequate control.

Lipodystrophy

The breakdown of subcutaneous fat at the site of repeated insulin injections.

Lipohypertrophy

The buildup of subcutaneous fat at the site of repeated insulin injections.

Insulin Pen

A device containing an insulin cartridge where the client dials the dose in $1\text{- to }2\text{-unit}$ increments for injection.

Jet Injector

A device that uses high pressure and rapid speed rather than a needle to instill insulin through the skin.

Insulin Sensitizers

A category of oral drugs including Biguanides (Metformin) and Thiazolidinediones (TZDs) that help tissues use available insulin more efficiently.

Sulfonylureas

Oral antidiabetic drugs such as glyburide and glipizide that reduce blood glucose by stimulating the pancreas, often causing weight gain and hypoglycemic reactions.

Alpha-glucosidase Inhibitors

Drugs like miglitol and acarbose that slow the process of forming and absorbing glucose by inhibiting intestinal enzymes; must be taken $15\text{ minutes}$ before meals.

Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic Nonketotic Syndrome (HHNKS)

An acute complication characterized by blood glucose levels over $500\text{ mg/dL}$ without ketosis, more common in Type 2 diabetes or older adults.

Hypoglycemia

A low blood glucose level (below $60\text{ mg/dL}$) that manifests as neurologic changes, confusion, tremors, and hunger.

Glucagon

A hormone that stimulates the liver to release glycogen, prescribed for the treatment of severe low blood sugar.

Peripheral Neuropathy

Pathologic changes in nerves that can affect motor, sensory, and autonomic functions due to poor glucose control and decreased circulation.

Gastroparesis

Atony of the stomach that retards the movement of food, resulting from autonomic neuropathy.

Diabetic Nephropathy

The progressive decrease in renal function that occurs with diabetes mellitus due to glomerular deterioration.

Albuminuria

The presence of albumin in the urine, detected by chemical strip tests as an early sign of nephropathy.

Diabetic Retinopathy

Vascular changes in the retina caused by inadequately controlled blood glucose, potentially leading to blindness.

Microaneurysms

Outpouchings in retinal capillaries occurring in nonproliferative retinopathy due to high vascular pressure.

Leptin

A chemical that signals satiation to the brain; insensitivity to this chemical is linked to obesity and diabetes.