AP LANG EXAM REVIEW

Argumentative/Synthesis Essay

-intro, 2-3 main points, counterargument, conclusion

-counterargument can be separate paragraph anywhere in the body, or tied in to one of the main point paragraphs

-use at least 3 sources, 1 to back up counterargument

-use specific evidence; don't make the reader look up evidence

-"According to Source A..."; put (Source A) at the end of sentence using specific evidence

-high diction

-clear, concise thesis

-don't stress over qualifying, defending, or challenging; whatever you choose, do it well

Rhetorical Analysis Essay

-analyze diction, syntax, rhetorical strategies

-show respect for author

-refer to author (if any) by full name first, and then last name once you use full name

-avoid cliches ("so-and-so paints a picture," etc.")

-do not waste time on intro

-no contractions- spell everything out

-clear, concise thesis

Argumentative/Elaboration Essay

-use examples from history, literature, science, personal, etc (at least 3 examples is best)

-come up with your own evidence

-refer to author (if any) by full name first, and then last name once you use full name

-clear, concise thesis

Alliteration

when two words in a sentence begin with the same letter

EX: The big blue ball

Antonomasia

a substitution of any epithet or phrase for a proper name

EX: "The King of Rock n Roll" for Elvis Presley

Anthimeria

any novel change in a word's use, most commonly the use of a noun as if it were a verb

EX: "Chill-cold; there's a time to break and a time to chill"

Assonance

the repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds, usually in successive or proximate words

EX: "she sells seashells by the seashore"

Anaphora

repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses, sentences, or lines

EX: "and so let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire...let freedom ring from...let freedom ring from..."

Epistrophe

ending a series of lines, phrases, clauses, or sentences with the same word or words

EX: "where now? when now? who now?"

Anadiplosis

the repetition of the last word of a preceding clause. The word is used at the end of the sentence and then used again at the beginning of the next sentence

EX: "The mountains look on Marathon - And Marathon looks on the sea..."

"He retained his virtues amidst all his - misfortunes — misfortunes which no prudence could foresee or prevent."

"For Lycidas is dead, dead ere his prime,

Young Lycidas and hath not left his peer."

Epizeuxis

the repetition of a word or phrase in immediate succession, for vehemence or emphasis

EX: "And thou no breath at all? Thou'lt come no more,

Never, never, never, never!" -King Lear

"We are never ever ever ever getting back together" -Taylor Swift

Caricature

device used in descriptive writing and visual arts where particular aspects of a subject are exaggerated to create a silly or comic effect

EX: "Mr. Chadband is a large yellow man, with a fat smile, and a general appearance of having a good deal of train oil in his system. Mrs. Chadband is a stern, severe-looking, silent woman. Mr. Chadband moves softly and cumbrously, not unlike a bear who has been taught to walk upright. He is very much embarrassed about the arms, as if they were inconvenient to him."

Parenthesis

an explanatory or qualifying word, clause, or sentence inserted into a passage that is not essential to the literal meaning

EX: my dog, who is very hyper, has shaggy hair

Indirect discourse

discourse consisting not of an exact quotation of a speaker's words but of a version transformed from them for grammatical inclusion in a larger sentence

EX: He said he was hungry

Diatribe

a forceful and bitter attack against someone or something

EX: a father lecturing his son about how the son is not doing anything with his life

Diacope

the repetition of a word or phrase with one or two intervening words

EX: "All happy families are alike, but an unhappy family is unhappy after its own fashion." ("unhappy" is the diacope)

Parallelism

refers to grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence

EX: "good we must love, and must hate ill"

Epanalepsis

the repetition of the initial word(s) of a clause or sentence at the end of that same clause or sentence

EX: "the king is dead; long live the king"

Isocolon

a string of phrases of corresponding structure and equal length

EX: "I came; I saw; I conquered"

Ellipsis

the suppression of ancillary words to render an expression more lively or more forceful

EX: John can play the guitar; Mary can too

Polysyndeton

opposite of asyndeton, the deliberate use of many conjunctions for emphasis

EX: we ran and sang and jumped and danced and laughed and smiled

Paradox

an apparently contradictory statement that nevertheless contains a measure of truth; like oxymoron

EX: "all animals are equal, but some are more equal than others"

Antithesis

the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, often in parallel structure; emphasizes dissimilarities and contraries; produces the quality of an aphorism

EX: "it was the best of times, it was the worst of times"

Anastrophe (or inversion)

when the syntactically correct order of subject, object, and verb might be changed to object-subject-verb

EX: "to me alone there came a thought of grief"

Apposition

placing side by side two coordinate elements, the second of which serves as an explanation or modification of the first

EX: "we were waiting outside the condemned cells, a row of sheds fronted with double bars, like small animal cages"

Asyndeton

the omission of conjunctions in a series of related clauses

EX: "are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils, shrunk to this little measure?"

"without looking, without making a sound, without talking"

Antimetabole

repetition of words, in successive clauses, in reverse grammatical order; sounds like an aphorism

EX: "eat to live, not live to eat"

"if you fail to plan, you plan to fail"

Chiasmus

the repetition and arrangement of two key terms in a sentence using the ABBA pattern

EX: "his time a moment, and a point his space"

"do I love you because you're beautiful? Or are you beautiful because I love you?"

Metonymy

substitution of some attributive or suggestive word for what is actually meant

EX: "friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears"

Synecdoche

a figure of speech in which a part stands for the whole

EX: "his eyes met hers as she sat there paler and whiter than anyone in the vast ocean of anxious faces about her" (faces refers to people)

Zeugma

where a single word is used in relation to two other parts of a sentence although the word grammatically or logically applies to one

EX: "[They] covered themselves with dust and glory"

Personification

investing abstractions or inanimate objects with human qualities or abilities

EX: "the woods are getting ready to sleep"

Apostrophe

addressing an absent person or a personified abstraction

EX: "twinkle twinkle little star, how I wonder what you are..."

Hyperbole

the use of exaggerated terms for the purpose of emphasis or heightened effect

EX: "I had to wait in the station for ten days- an eternity"

Cataphora

when a term is used to first insert an expression or word that co-refers with a later expression in the discourse

EX: "Why do we envy him, the bankrupt man?" ("him" and "man")

Litotes

deliberate use of understatement, not to deceive someone but to enhance the impressiveness of what is stated

EX: "I am not unaware how the productions of the Grub Street brotherhood have of late years fallen under many prejudices"

Oxymoron

the yoking of two terms that are ordinarily contradictory; produces a startling effect

EX: "why, then, O brawling love! O loving hate!"

Onomatopoeia

use of words whose sound echoes the sense

EX: "it went zip when it moved and bop when it stopped..."

Declarative sentence

assertive, makes a statement

EX: the king is dead

Imperative sentence

authoritative, gives a command

EX: wash the dishes

Interrogative sentence

questioning, asks a question

EX: is the king dead?

Exclamatory sentence

emotional, makes an exclamation

EX: the king is dead!

Simple sentence

contains one subject and one verb; has only one main, complete thought

EX: I ran

Complex sentence

one simple sentence and one or more clauses connected to simple sentence with subordinating conjunctions

EX: Because I fell down the stairs, I had a scratch on my knee

Compound sentence

two independent clauses joined by a coordinate conjunction or semicolon

EX: She walked home, but her mom had already driven to school to pick her up

Compound-complex sentence

a combination of the above

EX: Since I was tired, I went back to sleep, but I slept through my alarm

Loose sentence (cumulative)

makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending

EX: I watched TV, reclining in the chair, eating ice cream, talking on the phone

Periodic sentence

makes sense only when the end of a sentence is reached

EX: Reclining in the chair, eating ice cream, talking on the phone, I watched TV

Balanced sentence

the phrases and clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness of structure, meaning, or length

EX: "life is a comedy to those who think, a tragedy to those who feel"

Participle

a word that looks like a verb but is used as an adjective

EX: The man carrying the bricks is my father (the phrase carrying the bricks describes the man, thus an adjective)

Infinitive

a word that looks like a verb but is used as a noun, adjective, or adverb

EX: I like to swim (to swim is used as a noun in the infinitive form)

Absolute

when a participle and the noun that comes before it together forms an independent phrase

EX: "the man stood laughing, his weapon at his hips"

"we decided to have our picnic, the weather being warm and clear"

Gerund

a word that looks like a verb but is used as a noun

EX: I enjoy reading (reading is a noun)

Cause and effect (Causal analysis)

a writer chooses a subject and determines how he/she is going to examine the causes and effects in relation to it

EX: "in recent decades, cities have grown so large that now about 50% of the Earth's population lives in urban areas. There are several reasons for this occurrence. First, the increasing industrialization of the nineteenth century resulted in the creation of many factory jobs, which tended to be located in cities. These jobs, with their promise of a better material life, attracted many people from rural areas. Second, there were many schools established to educate the children of the new factory laborers. The promise of a better education persuaded many families to leave farming communities and move to the cities. Finally, as the cities grew, people established places of leisure, entertainment, and culture, such as sports stadiums, theaters, and museums. For many people, these facilities made city life appear more interesting than life on the farm, and therefore drew them away from rural communities"

Comparison and contrast

writer examines how two subjects are similar or different

EX: "work and school are very much alike in at least five ways. First, both require an early

start...Second,...Next,...Also,...Finally,..."

"however, there are also some differences between the two institutions..."

Definition

writing that explains what a term or concept means

EX: "Happiness is a very complex emotion that can be felt in many ways. It can come from the senses: the sight of a smile on a child's face, the smell of flowers in the air, the feeling of the sun on one's face, or the sound of music. Happiness can also come from basic necessities such

as food for the hungry, a blanket for the cold, and a drink for the thirsty. More lasting emotions can give rise to happiness, too-- for example, love: love of parents, brothers and sisters, husband or wife, and love of all mankind. In essence, happiness seems to result from being in accord with life and its experiences. When such happiness is achieved, it can bring great peace of mind"

Narration

writer tells or retells a sequence of evens within a particular time frame for a specific purpose

EX: "One of my most unforgettable experiences was seeing a tornado. My husband and I had spent a day in Cincinnati and were on the way back to Dayton. It was an unusually hot day for the early spring. Later in the afternoon the temperature dropped, and a few dark clouds gathered.

Then I saw the twister. The great funnel moved extremely fast and constantly changed its position and shape. First, it became tall and skinny, and later, it shrank back to a smaller size. Even though it must have been miles away from us, we could see the flying and swirling pieces

of objects in the air. The twister lifted them up and threw them all over the countryside. Later that night we learned the tragic news about Xenia, Ohio. The swirling objects that we had seen were houses, roof tops, and cars. Today, when an announcement of a tornado warning is given, I search for a hiding place. Seeing the incredible power of the tornado made a believer out of me, and earned my everlasting respect"

Illustration (exemplification)

writer uses examples to show, explain, prove a point

EX: "There are many types of friendship, but a true friendship that stands the test of time requires patience, sacrifice, and shared experiences. Friends must be patient with each other. Even though friends may be alike in many ways, they will be different in other ways. So if you are a fast eater, but your friend is a slow eater, you may have to wait for him or her to finish eating if you go out to a restaurant. You might also have to compromise on the air temperature or the music level if you and your friend go on a road trip..."

Description

writing that creates a clear and vivid impression of the topic; translates experience into words often by appealing to the five senses

EX: "My doctor's office is a gloomy place. The walls are a depressing institutional green, and the one facing the entrance features the standard Norman Rockwell painting of a country physician. The frame is chipped, and the faded print has a layer of dust on it. The furniture looks like garage sale rejects, with torn vinyl and loose legs, and it's not even as comfortable as a park bench. The magazines, Readers Digest and Newsweek, are out of date and so badly worn that reading them is nearly impossible. There used to be a pot of live flowers near the door, but it's gone now. All that remains is an ugly water stain that has left a smelly, moldy ring in the corner. Adding the final touch is the usual, large group of sick people, coughing and moaning. The whole place makes a patient wonder if being ill at home isn't better than being there"

Classification

writer groups items together that share important characteristics

EX: "People looking to lose weight have a few options: exercise, diet, weight loss pills, and surgery. Exercising involves going to a gym, working out at home, or joining some sort of class or sports team. Those who are dieting can talk to a doctor about a plan for them. Weight loss pills can be taken, if proper precautions and directions are followed. Individuals who are severely overweight can talk to a doctor about having surgery to lose the weight that they need"

Process analysis

either explains how to do something or explains how something works

EX: "To be a good friend, an individual has to spend time working on her friendships, or they will eventually fade. When two people first meet, they both need to be sure they are acting in good manor, so they don't scare the other away. After they meet and start talking a few times, they will start getting to know each other, calling each other, and spending more time with each other. That is how a friendship begins. After they call each other "friends", the friendship has to be made through the effort of more than just one person, so each has to do her own part. Friendships shouldn't take a lot of money but they do take a lot of time and care. Friends should always listen to what the other has to say, and then should give advice only when asked for it. No matter how much friends are alike, everyone has differences, so a friend should be able to accept their differences. After being a friend to a person for a long period of time, one might get tired of hearing repeated problems everyday, but a good friend will always be there for her friend no matter what"

Apathetic

indifferent to something, unconcerned

Contrite

apologetic, showing remorse

Cynical

bitter, resentful, distrusting

Callous

unfeeling, coldhearted

Impetuous

brash, foolhardy

Infantile

childish, immature

Erudite

learned, cultured, scholarly

Pedantic

meticulous, exact, precise

Inquisitive

curious, questioning

Jovial

good-natured, light-hearted

Melancholic

forlorn, despondent

Wistful

nostalgic, sentimental

Poignant

touching, upsetting

Quixotic

romantic, loving (idealistic)

Ribald

coarse, vulgar

Sardonic

bitterly scornful, cynically disdainful

Induction

process of reasoning by which you develop evidence in order to reach a useful generalization

Deduction

process of reasoning that proceeds from the general to the particular

Refutation

acknowledgment and handling of opposing viewpoints

Justification

what defines a claim as being something worth arguing about, that the claim requires some evidence and interpretation (grounds) in order to be believed, and the claim is not already accepted by likely readers

Conclusion

derives logically from the major and minor propositions; the end of an argument

Claim

an opinion that can be justified by further evidence and interpretation

Counterargument

alternative interpretation of evidence that challenges rather than supports claim

Argument

a series of statements intended to justify some opinion

Fallacy

a weak interpretation of evidence, as opposed to a valid, strong, or convincing interpretation of evidence

Evidence

that part of the argument that is interpreted in support of the claim

Grounds

the evidence and interpretation combined in support of your claim

Backing

an even broader principle that serves as the function for a warrant

Warrant

a stated/unstated belief, rule, principle that underlies an argument

Ethos

establishing credibility; using ethics to establish credibility

Pathos

appeal to emotions

Logos

using logical appeals

Transfer

add strength to argument by referring to respected sources or authorities and explaining their positions on the issues discussed

Ad hominem

a character attack, insulting a person or cause instead of addressing the argument or issue

Hasty generalization

utilizing stereotypes in an argument, making sweeping conclusions based on little evidence

Oversimplification

careless reasoning that doesn't factor in all of the issues at hand

Begging the question

a cyclical argument that's based on an assumption made by the writer

Post hoc

assuming that two events are related, that one is the cause for the other when it could just be coincidence

False analogy

assuming without sufficient proof that if two things are similar in some ways, they will be similar in other ways