Unit 0: Scientific Methodology / Science Practices Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards covering core scientific methodology, psychology research designs, statistical measures, and research ethics based on Unit 0 notes.

Empirical Evidence

The idea that knowledge is gained from observation and experience rather than intuition or belief, forming the basis of the scientific method.

Cultural norms

The shared expectations and rules that guide behavior within a social group.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one's existing beliefs while ignoring or downplaying contradictory information.

Hindsight bias

The tendency for people to believe, after an event has occurred, that they could have accurately predicted the outcome, often described as the "knew-it-all-along" phenomenon.

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias where individuals overestimate their knowledge, abilities, or the accuracy of their judgments, leading them to believe they are more competent than they actually are.

Experiment

A research method where a researcher actively manipulates one variable (the independent variable) to observe its effect on another variable (the dependent variable), establishing a causal relationship.

Random assignment

The process of allocating participants to different groups in an experiment using a chance procedure, ensuring that each participant has an equal likelihood of being placed in any group.

Case Study

A research design involving an in-depth and detailed examination of a single subject, or case, usually an individual or a small group.

Correlational Study

A research method where a researcher measures two or more variables and assesses the statistical relationship between them without actively manipulating any variables.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines data from multiple studies on the same topic to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon.

Naturalistic Observation

A research method where a researcher observes and records behavior as it occurs naturally in a real-world setting, without any manipulation or intervention.

Hypothesis

A proposed, testable explanation for a phenomenon, often constructed in the form of a statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

Falsifiable Hypothesis

A hypothesis that can be proven false through observation or experimentation; a prediction that can be disproven by data.

Operational Definition

A clear and specific description of a concept or variable in a study, outlining exactly how it will be measured or manipulated.

Replication

The process of repeating a research study, often with different participants and situations, to see if the original findings can be consistently reproduced.

Independent variable

The factor that a researcher actively manipulates or changes in an experiment to observe its effect on another variable.

Dependent variable

The variable that measures the outcome of the experiment, representing the response that is measured.

Confounding variable

A factor other than the independent variable that could potentially influence the dependent variable in an experiment, skewing the results.

Sample

A small portion of individual cases selected from a greater population to participate in a study.

Population

All individuals who share particular characteristics and can be considered as part of a larger group from which samples are drawn.

Representative sample

A smaller group of individuals selected from a larger population that accurately reflects the demographics and traits present in that wider population.

Convenience Sample

A research sample where participants are chosen based on their easy accessibility and availability to the researcher, rather than being selected randomly.

Random Sample

A group of subjects in an experiment that accurately depicts the overall population, covering various ethnicities, socioeconomic classes, gender, and age.

Sampling Bias

A situation where a research sample is not representative of the larger population because certain members are systematically more likely to be chosen.

Generalizability

The extent to which the results of a study conducted on a specific sample can be applied to a broader population or other situations.

Experimental Group

The group of participants in a study who are exposed to the independent variable being tested.

Control Group

A group of participants in an experiment who are not exposed to the independent variable, serving as a baseline for comparison.

Placebo

A substance with no known medical effects, such as sterile water, saline solution, or a sugar pill, used as a fake treatment.

Single-Blind Procedure

An experimental design where the participants are unaware of which group they are assigned to, but the researchers are aware.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental setup where neither the participant in the study nor the person giving the study knows who is in the control group and who is in the experimental group.

Experimenter bias

When a researcher unintentionally influences the results of their study due to their own expectations, beliefs, or behaviors.

Social desirability bias

The tendency for research participants to answer questions in a way that portrays them in a positive light by giving socially acceptable responses.

Qualitative Research

A research method that collects non-numerical data, such as descriptions, observations, and interviews, to understand subjective experiences.

Structured interview

A research method where every participant is asked the exact same set of questions in the same order to ensure consistency.

Quantitative Research

Research that uses operational measurements and statistical techniques to reach conclusions on the basis of numerical data.

Likert scales

A psychometric scale used to measure attitudes, opinions, or behaviors by asking respondents to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement on a set scale.

Representation

A mental image or concept that stands in for something else, describing how the brain encodes and stores information about the world.

Peer review

A quality control process where experts in a field evaluate research studies or articles submitted for publication to assess methodology, accuracy, and relevance.

Directionality problem

A limitation in correlational research where it is unclear which variable is causing the other, making it impossible to establish a clear causal link.

Third variable problem

A situation where a seemingly correlated relationship between two variables is actually influenced by an unaccounted-for third variable.

Correlation

The statistical relationship between two variables, where a change in one variable tends to be accompanied by a consistent change in the other.

Causation

A direct cause-and-effect relationship between two variables, where a change in one variable directly leads to a change in another.

Survey

A research method where participants answer a set of questions to gather self-reported data about their attitudes, opinions, or behaviors.

Self-report bias

The tendency for individuals to provide inaccurate or misleading information about their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

Measures of central tendency

A set of statistical calculations used to identify the typical or middle value within a data set, commonly represented by the mean, median, and mode.

Variation

The degree to which individuals within a population differ from one another in terms of traits or characteristics.

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores in a given distribution that fall below a specific score; for instance, scoring at the $75\text{th}$ percentile means scoring higher than $75\%$ of test takers.

Mean

The sum of all values in a dataset divided by the total number of values, commonly referred to as the average.

Median

The middle value in a set of data when all values are arranged in order from smallest to largest.

Mode

The score or value that appears most frequently in a data set.

Range

The lowest score subtracted from the highest score in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A statistical measure indicating how spread out a set of data is, representing the average distance of each score from the mean.

z-score

A type of standard score that indicates how many standard deviation units a given score is above or below the mean for that group.

Normal Curve

A theoretical bell-shaped distribution of data where most data points cluster around the mean with values tapering off equally on either side.

Skewed distribution

A data set where scores are not evenly distributed around the mean, creating an asymmetrical pattern with a longer tail on one side.

Positively skewed distribution

An asymmetrical distribution of data that has a long tail extending toward the right side.

Negatively skewed distribution

An asymmetrical distribution of data that has a long tail extending toward the left side.

Bimodal Distribution

A data distribution that shows two distinct peaks, indicating two separate modes or most frequent values within the dataset.

Regression Towards the Mean

The statistical phenomenon where extremely high or low scores on a first measurement tend to move closer to the average when measured again.

Research ethics

A set of moral principles guiding psychologists to ensure participant safety, well-being, informed consent, and confidentiality during research.

Institutional Review Board

A committee that reviews and approves research proposals involving human participants to ensure adherence to ethical standards and protection of welfare.

Animal Research

The practice of using non-human animals in psychological experiments to study behavior and underlying principles while following ethical welfare guidelines.

Informed Consent

Giving research participants sufficient information about a study's purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits so they can voluntarily decide whether to participate.

Informed Assent

The agreement to participate obtained from a person unable to legally give full consent, such as a minor, using clear and accessible language.

Harm in research

Any negative impact or distress experienced by participants due to involvement in a study, including physical discomfort, emotional distress, or embarrassment.

Confidentiality

The ethical principle requiring researchers to safeguard participant privacy by not sharing any identifiable information without consent.

Anonymity of data

A study condition where the researcher is completely unable to link individual data responses to specific participant identities.

Deception

The practice of intentionally misleading research participants about the true purpose or procedures of a study to observe genuine behavior.

Research confederates

An actor secretly working with the experimenter who poses as a regular participant to execute a scripted behavior during an experiment.

Debrief

The post-experimental process of explaining the true purpose, procedures, and any deception used in a study to participants.

Effect size

A statistical measure indicating the magnitude or practical strength of a relationship between two variables.

Statistical Significance

A conclusion that research results are unlikely due to chance, typically indicated by a $p$-value less than $0.05$, showing less than a $5\%$ probability of random error.