Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

Nicholas Copernicus

Polish astronomer who proposed that the Earth revolves around the Sun, challenging Church beliefs.

Johannes Kepler

German astronomer who added mathematical support to Copernicus’s theory, discovering elliptical orbits and differing planet speeds.

Galileo Galilei

Italian mathematician who improved Copernicus’s theory through observations and established laws of physics, despite Church opposition.

Francis Bacon

Philosopher who developed the scientific method to distinguish between myths and proven facts.

Rene Descartes

Philosopher and mathematician who invented analytic geometry and merged philosophy with science.

Isaac Newton

Scientist known for groundbreaking discoveries in mathematics and physics; authored 'Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy' and developed calculus.

Andreas Vesalius

Scientist who advanced anatomy by dissecting human bodies.

William Harvey

Physician who made significant discoveries in the understanding of blood circulation.

Robert Hooke

Scientist who discovered the cell and contributed to biology.

Robert Boyle

Chemist who established chemistry as a pure science and criticized alchemists.

Deism

Philosophical belief in a natural religion based on reason and natural law, prevalent during the Enlightenment.

Thomas Hobbes

Philosopher who advocated for a strong monarch due to his belief in the violent nature of humans.

John Locke

Philosopher who believed in cooperative government due to the reasonable nature of humans; inspired the Declaration of Independence.

Voltaire

French author known for satirical works against the Church and the royal court.

Baron de Montesquieu

Philosopher who argued for separation of powers in government, influencing modern political systems.

Salons

Social gatherings in Paris where intellectuals discussed new ideas during the Enlightenment.

Enlightened Despots

Monarchs who sought to implement Enlightenment ideas to improve governance.

Romanticism

Cultural movement emphasizing emotion and individualism, emerging as a response to Classicism.

Classicism

Artistic movement aimed at emulating the styles of ancient Greek and Roman works while emphasizing reason.

Joseph Priestley

Scientist who discovered the properties of gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Antoine Lavoisier

Chemist who studied combustion and human consumption of oxygen, fundamentally changing chemistry.

Marie Lavoisier

Contributed to scientific work by translating and illustrating Lavoisier's publications.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Philosopher who criticized reliance on reason, advocating for emotion and instinct in human behavior.

Immanuel Kant

Philosopher who argued that reason cannot explain metaphysics, advocating for a balance of reason and faith.

Hugo Grotius

Philosopher known for developing an international code based on natural law.