Bio-Sciences Final Exam Review

Flashcards covering cell biology, histology, homeostasis, systems physiology, and sensory anatomy based on the lecture transcript.

Nucleus

Stores genetic information (DNA) and directs cell activities.

Mitochondria

Generates ATP (cellular energy) via cellular respiration, known as the "powerhouse of the cell".

Ribosomes

Synthesize proteins.

Rough ER

A type of Endoplasmic Reticulum that modifies and transports proteins with ribosomes attached.

Smooth ER

A type of Endoplasmic Reticulum that synthesizes lipids and detoxifies.

Golgi Apparatus

Packages, sorts, and ships proteins and lipids.

Lysosomes

Contain digestive enzymes to break down waste and cellular debris.

ATP

Adenosine Triphosphate; the primary energy currency of the cell used to power cellular processes.

Active transport

Movement of substances across a cell membrane against their concentration gradient from low to high concentration; requires ATP energy and transport proteins.

Connective Tissue

Tissue type characterized by cells scattered throughout a non-living extracellular matrix; it protects, binds, supports, and insulates organs.

Cell

The fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.

Metabolism

The sum total of all biochemical reactions in the body, including catabolism and anabolism.

Homeostasis

The body's maintenance of a relatively stable, balanced internal environment despite external changes.

Negative Feedback

A mechanism that reverses a change to bring the system back toward its set point, such as body temperature regulation.

Positive Feedback

A mechanism that amplifies or intensifies a change away from the normal state until a specific outcome is achieved, such as blood clotting.

Organ systems

Groupings of organs that work together to perform complex physiological functions.

pH Scale

Measures hydrogen ion $(H^+)$ concentration from $0$ to $14$.

Acidic

A solution with a pH $< 7$ and a high concentration of $(H^+)$.

Neutral

A solution with a pH $= 7$ where $(H^+)$ and $(OH^-)$ are equal.

Basic / Alkaline

A solution with a pH $> 7$ and a low concentration of $(H^+)$.

Osmosis

Passive diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration.

Phagocytosis

"Cell eating"; a type of endocytosis where a cell engulfs large solid particles or pathogens.

Apoptosis

Programmed, controlled cell death ("cellular suicide"), appearing particularly in the cell cycle where cancer is present.

Dense Regular Connective Tissue

Tissue packed with parallel collagen fibers that composes both tendons and ligaments.

Tendons

Structures that connect muscle to bone.

Ligaments

Structures that connect bone to bone.

Smooth Muscle

Involuntary, non-striated muscle found in the walls of hollow visceral organs like the stomach or blood vessels.

Cardiac Muscle

Involuntary, striated muscle found exclusively in the heart wall.

Integumentary System

Composed of the skin (cutaneous membrane) and accessory structures: hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands.

Inflammation

A protective local response to tissue injury or infection characterized by redness, heat, swelling, and pain.

Long Bones

Bones that are longer than they are wide, such as the femur or humerus.

Short Bones

Cube-like bones such as carpals and tarsals.

Flat Bones

Thin, flattened bones such as the sternum and skull bones.

Irregular Bones

Bones with complex shapes such as vertebrae and hip bones.

Sesamoid Bones

Bones embedded within tendons, such as the patella.

Osteoblasts

Bone-building cells that synthesize and deposit organic bone matrix.

Osteoclasts

Bone-breaking cells that resorb and dissolve bone matrix for remodeling and calcium balance.

Osteocytes

Mature bone cells trapped in lacunae that maintain bone health and sense mechanical stress.

Hemopoiesis

Blood cell production occurring in bone marrow.

Myofibrils

Microscopic, cylindrical structures within muscle cells composed of repeating units called sarcomeres.

Actin

A thin myofilament composed of globular actin proteins twisted into a chain, along with tropomyosin and troponin.

CNS

Central Nervous System; composed of the brain and spinal cord.

Dura Mater

The tough, fibrous outer layer of the meninges.

Arachnoid Mater

The web-like middle layer of the meninges; its subarachnoid space holds cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Pia Mater

The thin, delicate inner layer of the meninges clinging directly to the surface of the brain and spinal cord.

Reflex Arc Components

Sensory Receptor → Sensory (Afferent) Neuron → Integration Center (CNS) → Motor (Efferent) Neuron → Effector.

Sensory adaptation

A decrease in perception or responsiveness of sensory receptors when exposed to a continuous, unchanging stimulus.

Baroreceptors

Receptors that detect changes in blood pressure via stretch in blood vessels.

Thermoreceptors

Receptors that detect changes in temperature.

Photoreceptors

Receptors that detect light, specifically rods and cones in the retina.

Chemoreceptors

Receptors that detect chemical concentrations such as blood glucose, $O_2$, $CO_2$, pH, taste, and smell.

Melanin

The main protective pigment produced by melanocytes in the skin and hair.

Eumelanin

Pigment that produces brown to black colors and provides strong UV protection.

Pheomelanin

Pigment that produces red to yellow colors and provides poor protection against UV radiation.