APWH all flashcards

major religions and main areas

• christianity: europe, northeast africa, parts of middle east

• buddhism: asia

• confucianism: china

• hinduism: india

• islam: middle east, north africa, central asia, parts of europe

• judaism: middle east

song china government system

• civil service exam to enter bureaucracy

  • formation of scholar gentry class

• meritocracy in theory but mostly only wealthy people get to spend their time studying for the exam

• confucianism (filial piety) helps maintain power bc of hierarchical emphasis

• mandate of heaven: emperors granted right to rule by heaven but is conditional (must be virtuous/just)

song china social developments

• patriarchal; women have few rights (ex. foot binding)

• increasing population bc farming innovations (ex. champa rice)

• confucian revival + emphasis on filial piety helps maintain imperial rule

• urbanization

• commercialization/proto-industrialization (production > consumption/sale), sale of excess goods (gunpowder, porcelain, silk, paper) = global influence, economic growth

• greatly influences other east asian countries

japan social developments (un1)

• feudal system

  • emperor (figurehead) > shogun > daimyo (landowners) > samurai (vassals) > peasants

  • samurai bushido code: honor, loyalty

india social developments (un1)

• introduction of islam, conflict w hindu

  • bhakti movement: simplified hinduism + helped spread it

• caste system: stability but little social mobility

india empires/kingdoms (un1)

• delhi sultanate: established by islamic invaders; non-muslim oppression (ex. jizya tax)

• vijayanagara empire: established in south by hindus from delhi sultanate

• rajput kingdoms: independent hindu principalities united by islam/muslim resistance

southeast asia trade kingdoms (un1)

• majapahit kingdom: sea-based, buddhist, power through sea-route control

• khmer empire: hindu/buddhist + religious tolerance, syncretism shown in angkor wat

dar al islam social developments

• innovations (math, greek preservation, medicine)

• islamic expansion: military, merchants, missionaries

  • shift of power from arab to turkic

abbasid caliphate

golden age of islam

• ethnically arab

• baghdad, house of wisdom

• decline: internal struggles, mongol invasion

turkic islamic states

• rise after power decline of abbasid caliphate

• seljuk empire, mamluk sultanate, delhi sultanate

• contrinuity from arab/abbasid: miitary administration, sharia law (based on quran)

africa major trades (un1)

trans-saharan trade, indian ocean trade

• slave trade w islam across saharan → islam introduction

africa trade kingdoms/cities (un1)

• east: swahili

• west: ghana, mali, songhay, hausa kingdoms

• great zimbabwe

• ethiopia

swahili

series of indian ocean trade cities

• trade goods from african interior

• heavy muslim influence

  • become islamic → join islamic trade

  • social hierarchy topped by muslim elite

  • arab/persian diasporas

  • syncretism!! swahili the language

hausa kingdoms

series of city-states

• trans-saharan trade

• no central authority = decline

great zimbabwe (un1)

• maintained indigenous religion, no islamic conversion

• gold exports

ethiopia (un1)

• christian

• hierarchical power structure

major indigenous civilizations in the americas

• mississippians

• aztec

• mayan

• inca

mississippians

mississippi river valley

• large towns dominate smaller settlements

• earth mounds, fertile soil

• rigid class structure, matrilineal

• cahokia!!

aztec

central mexico

• tenochtitlan

• advanced farming techniques!! (chinampas)

• expansionism; conquered provide tributes (food, animals, materials, slaves/sacrifices)

  • decentralized rule

• polytheistic religion

inca

peru (andean mountain range)

• expansionist; obtain land for ruler

  • mit’a: conquered must provide labor for state projects

  • bureaucracy

  • centralized rule

• polytheistic religion w focus on sun god

mayan

south mexico

• city states

• scientific advancement

• religion involved ceremonies and human sacrifice

europe social developments (un1)

• feudalism: hierarchical social system

  • decentralization, political fragmentation, fulfillment of obligations to those on other levels

  • serfs have few rights

  • manorialism: self-sufficient fiefs

• patriarchy (primogeniture)

• renaissance: revived interest in greek/roman culture

mongol empire

largest land-based empire of all time!!

established/expanded by genghis khan; further expanded by his three grandsons (batu → golden horde in russia, kublai khan in china → yuan dynasty, hulegu → ilkhanate in middle east)

pax mongolica

mongolian peace: after conquering, mongol reign was relatively peaceful!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

• liberal policies: religious tolerance, silk road/merchant protection, postal system, tax breaks for scholars

• stimulated growth of exchange networks + exchange of goods, ideas, culture, etc

• sometimes mongols assimilated into local cultures

• sometimes also hindered cultural growth due to initial brutality

impacts of mongol empire

expanded exchange networks, world trade, cultural diffusion through continuous empire + liberal policies

general causes of exchange network growth

• crusades

• empires provide stability/safety through unification/authority

• better transportation tech/knowledge

• innovations in commercial practices

• demand for luxury goods

major exchange networks and what they trade

• silk road: trading routes for luxury goods across eurasia

  • silk, porcelain; luxury goods because crossing is a lot of effort and camels have limited carrying capacity

• indian ocean: maritime trading routes dominated by persian/arab

  • more common goods, ex. textiles, spices, fruits/citrus; because ships have more cargo room

• trans-saharan: across sahara between muslim/west africa

  • gold, ivory, slaves, cloth

causes of silk road growth

• better transportation, ex. caravanserai (small inns that provided safety + culture exchange to travelers/merchants)

• innovations in commercial practices

  • money economy: using paper money instead of bartering

  • flying cash: depositing/withdrawing paper money at various locations

  • credit

• demand for luxury goods

effects of silk road growth

• powerful cities develop along trading routes (kashgar, samarkand)

• inc demand for luxury good → inc production by artisans, even at the expense of food production

causes of indian ocean trade growth

• better/safer transportation

  • maritime tech: navigation (astrolabe, compass), ship designs/innovations (junk, lateen sail, stern rudder)

  • increased environmental knowledge (ex. about monsoons) 

• commercial practices: similar to silk road, ex. credit

effects of indian ocean trade growth

• growth of states, ex. swahili

• diasporas: settlements of ethnic people away from their homeland

  • merchants/sailors interact w local culture + intermarry = mixing cultures/families

  • ex. arab/persian in east africa

• zheng he voyages further cultural diffusion (ex. spread of CN maritime tech)

causes of trans-saharan trade growth

better transportation tech (ex. camel saddle)

effects of trans-saharan trade growth

gold trade + merchant taxes = inc wealth/power of west african kingdoms

• mali esp so under mansa musa

• inc trade = inc administration

• songhai kingdom replaces mali after decline

general impacts of exchange network growth

• rise and fall of cities

  • growth along trade routes, ex. hangzhou

  • fall bc militaries can also travel along routes, ex. baghdad’s fall to mongols

• spread of religion, ex. buddhism to east/southeast asia

• spread of science, tech, literature, art

  • CN: gunpowder, paper, printing, porcelain, maritime/navigation tech, etc

  • muslim: medical knowledge, greek classics, etc

• travelers record journeys and spread cultural understanding (ex. marco polo, ibn battuta, margery kempe)

• spread of disease (ex. bubonic plague)

• spread of crops/farming techniques = inc population

• environmental degradation

land based empire

empire whose power comes from the extent of its territorial holdings

general methods for consolidating/legitimizing power (un3)

• (attempted) assimilation between cultures of conquerer/conquered

• religion: ex. EU divine right

• art/architecture: ex. France Versailles, Mughal Taj Mahal, Qing imperial portraits

• centralized bureaucracies: ensure laws are followed; ex. CN civil service exam, Ottoman devshirme

• expansion of military might: gunpowder, elite groups of soldiers ex. ottoman janissaries

• tax collection, ex. mughal zamindars, ottoman tax farmers, aztec tributes

• hierarchical systems

not everyone can maintain authority though! outdated tech, weak/corrupt leaders, religious conflicts, expensive armies

england administration (un3)

• divine right of kings: king’s right to rule is given by god, they are god’s representative

• justices of peace: officials that maintain peace + carry out the law

• bill of rights: ensure civil liberties + protection against tyrants

• parliament. duh.

france administration (un3)

• absolute power

• intendants/tax farmers: execute orders + collect taxes

• estates-general: advisors from clergy, nobility, commoners

• palace of versailles

  • very expensive to build and maintain: wealth and control over people

  • nobility must live there with him instead of spread out so they all end up kissing his ass

  • extensive gardens demonstrate power over nature

russia administration (un3)

• feudalist social hierarchy: boyar (landowner) > merchant > peasant > serf

• Ivan the Terrible is super expansionist and murdery

  • death -> Time of Troubles, conflicts over throne -> Romanov Dynasty

  • Peter + Catherine the Great: westernization (petersburg, navy, reforms, etc) at the cost of hard serf labor

• Cossacks: peasant-soldiers

social developments in europe (un3)

• protestant reformation

• counter reformation/catholic reformation

• religious treaties/wars

• renaissance

• scientific revolution

protestant reformation

• response to corrupt church practices + excessive wealth/power (ex. indulgences, simony)

• lutheranism: salvation depends on the individual/faith (sola fide), not on the middleman (church/king)

• calvinism: predetermination, elect

• anglicanism: King Henry VIII creates a new church bc he wants to remarry

catholic/counter reformation

roman catholic church’s pushback against reformation

• methods

  • inquisition: punish/torture nonbelievers

  • jesuits: missionary activity 

  • council of trent: reformation, removed a lot of corruption

• successful! protestantism contained

religious treaties/wars (un3)

• peace of augsburg

• edict of nantes

• thirty years war

peace of augsburg

german states can choose catholic or lutheran leader, churches/citizens must practice state religion

intended to end catholic/protestant conflicts

edict of nantes

religious toleration for huguenots (french protestants)

thirty years war

religious war between catholic/protestant

• ended by Peace of Westphalia: areas of Holy Roman Empire can choose to be either roman catholic, lutheran, or calvinist

• france and prussia come into power

renaissance

“rebirth,” greek/roman classic revival

• humanism: focus on human achievements/individuality rather than religion

• realisitc/proportionate art/sculpture: Michelangelo, Brunelleschi, Leonardo da Vinci, Donatello;

scientific revolution

period of major advancements in science, tech, philosophy

• scientific method: knowledge through experimentation, observation, logical reasoning

  • empiricism: using data to support hypotheses

• Gutenberg printing press, Copernicus/Galilgeo helicentric universe, Newton calculus/gravity

• atheism (no god) + deism (god is a passive “watchmaker)

• ideas that order/rationality should apply to gov/society help lead to enlightenment

ming dynasty

• established after overthrowing mongol yuan dynasty

• native chinese/han, reinstated traditional practices

  • centralized gov, confucian principles, civil service exam

  • silver currency → trade relations w spanish → inflation → weakness → get overthrown by qing dynasty (manchus)

qing dynasty

• established after overthrowing ming dynasty

• manchus, not native han, so they have to affirm legitimacy

  • imperial portraits, military power, taxes

• Kangxi and Qianlong support art + expand empire w gunpowder (only locally, not globally)

• granted limited trading rights to EU until they felt culturally threatened

japanese reaction to western influence (un3)

trade + missionaries until Tokugawa Shogunate/Edo period (Tokugawa Ieyasu)

• centralized power/control, reduced daimyo (landowner) power

• rigid caste system

• complete lockdown; National Seclusion Policy: JP cannot travel abroad, foreigners cannot visit

  • allows JP culture/art to thrive

gunpowder empires

1. ottoman

2. mughal

3. safavid

ottoman empire

invaded constantinople → istanbul

• Suleiman I: golden age, expansion up till vienna

• administration

  • devshirme: recruit christian boys by force, receive education and become gov officials loyal to sultan (ex. Janissaries, elite force of warriors)

    • upward mobility kind of

  • shariah: islamic legal system

  • tax farming: right to tax given to highest bidder

• decline due to internal struggles (weak sultans, “harem politics”), defense challenges, eventual collapse in WWI

mughal empire

south/central asia, unified indian subcontinent

• Babur: founded, replaced delhi sultanate

• Akbar: peak!! ease religious tensions through toleration and other liberal policies

  • removal of jizya tax, improve women/hindu positions, sikhism land grants; zamindar (landowning tax collectors)

• Aurangzeb: decline; hindu persecution, overexpansion, EU introduction

safavid empire

east of ottomans

• expansion under Shah Ismail

• ottoman rivals; conflict between shi’a muslims (safavid) and sunni muslims (ottoman)

  • shi’a believe only blood relatives of muhammad are his successors, sunni believe its anyone who is spiritually fit; each also believes themselves to be the true rep of islam

  • mughals are also predominantly sunni

  • Ismail’s declaration that safavids would be shia aggravated sunni/shia divide

• decline due to lavish lifestyle/military spending + oppressed sunni rebellions

gunpowder empire similarities

• turkic muslims (shia safavid, mughal/ottoman sunni)

• military dominance; use of gunpowder weapons (artillery, cannons) for expansion

  • conflicts w each other over territory/religion, ex. Safavid-Mughal conflict, Ottoman-Safavid war

• lack of modernization -> fall behind EU

  • contrast to russia, who modernized and survived

misc developments in africa (un3)

increasingly wealthy/centralized states

• songhai: islamic, salt/gold trade, expansion through military

• asanti: gold trade, expansion, military

• kongo: catholic, trade w portuguese

• angola: portuguese trading post that grew into a powerful state; portuguese attempts to exert more control resisted by Queen Nzinga but ultimately failed

causes of european exploration

• tech innovations: compass, astrolabe, lateen sail, caravel, cartography

• desire for asian luxury goods

  • sea-based routes are cheaper and more efficient

  • inc power of monarchy, which they can exert to get what they want

• desire for territory: taxes, trading

  • mercantilism

  • colonies = raw resources + new markets; though colonists often don’t like this

• preserve/spread religion

  • syncretism: combining different cultures/religions

• joint-stock companies

mercantilism

wealth measured in gold/silver, max exports/min imports (favorable balance of trade)

joint-stock companies

pool investors’ resources, finance exploration and make it less risky for investors (they share benefits and risks)

• British East India Company, Dutch East India Company (VOC)

• limited liability: investors not responsible for anything beyond their investment

portugal exploration (un4)

• explore african coast + india

  • trading post empire: control small outposts, create monopoly (spice trade)

• Prince Henry the Navigator; Vasco de Gama

spain exploration (un4)

• Ferdinand Magellan: circumnavigation

• Columbus: America

• silver trade

• conquering natives (aztec/inca)

• colonies in philippines

spanish conquering natives in the new world

• Hernando Cortes for aztecs, Francisco Pizarro for incas

• used disease, weapons, assistance from enemies

• established a new colonial society

  • social hierarchy: peninsulares (born in spain) > creoles (born in US) > mestizos (EU/NA) > mulattos (EU/Af) > zambos (Na/Af) > NA > Af

    • erased NA cultural diversity, ordered society by minority elite standards

  • coerced labor: encomienda, hacienda, mit’a

spanish coerced labor forms

• encomienda: crown grants conquistadores indigenous laborers in exchange for converting them to christianity (basically slavery)

  • protested against by some missionaries (ex. Bartolome de las Casas)

  • focus on controlling NA

• hacienda: force NA laborers to work on plantation

  • focus on controlling NA through land ownership

• mit’a: villages must send a percent of male population to silver mines

  • imitation of original incan system

Treaty of Tordesillas

longitudinal split of the americas between spain/portugal; west is spain’s and east is portugal’s

england exploration in the new world

• roanoke island; jamestown (13 colonies)

• trading posts in india

france exploration in the new world

fur trade in canada (quebec)

dutch exploration in the new world

• new amsterdam

• indian ocean trade

commercial revolution

transformation to trade-based economy (gold/silver)

columbian exchange

linking of E/W hemispheres (EU/US/Af); transatlantic sharing of biological/environmental elements, ex. plants, animals, food, and disease

columbian exchange; old → new

• animals: horses (better hunting), pigs, cows, sheep (food staples)

• foods: wheat, rice, sugar, etc = varied diets, longer lifespan

• disease: bubonic plague, measles, malaria, flu, smallpox

  • kill off millions of native population

• catholicism

columbian exchange; new → old

• crops: maize, potato, bean, squash →pop growth, longer lifespan

• cash crops: sugarcane, tobacco, cacao

• syphilis

triangular trade

economic trade of goods between Europe, Africa, and the Americas

• US provides raw mats, EU provides manufactured, Af provides slaves

transatlantic slave trade

• why: demand for farm/mine labor; NA died to disease/easily ran away; indentured not used to labor + had limited time

• exchanged w african rulers for weapons (though some protested); increasingly brutal methods in taking people

• race-based + hereditary; justified brutality

• far larger scale than indian ocean/mediterranean slave trade

• middle passage: passage for slaves from africa to america; very deadly, horrible conditions

impacts of transatlantic slave trade

• development of african diaspora: creole language, music, food, etc

• initially fostered the growth of the african states who participated through global connections, even if they were EU centered (ex. asante, kongo)

• overall weakened african kingdoms: depopulation, family structure disruption (polygyny), gender imbalance, inc violence, economic dependency on EU

resistance to EU interference during age of exploration

• asia: JP isolation, CN emphasis on traditional values

• americas: metacom’s war, maroon wars, pueblo revolt

• europe: fronde, pugachev’s rebellion

also sort of related: maratha empire

overall impacts of transatlantic connection

• global trade = EU power/wealth

• emergence of EU maritime trading empires/ports

  • also entrance into indian ocean network

• spread of sugar + silver

  • silver highly desired in CN

• social hierarchies: new ethnicity/race-based political elites, ex. spanish in casta system, manchu in qing dynasty

misc continuities during age of exploration

• middle east/asian use of indian ocean network

• overland route (ex. silk road) domination by asian states

enlightenment

intellectual movement applying new ways of understanding (ex. rationalism) to natural world + human relations/society

emphasis on individualism, freedom, self-determination, challenging authority, human accomplishment, revolution

developed from scientific revolution/renaissance (rationalism, imperialism)

main ideas of enlightenment

• individualism

• social contract

• separation/checks on power of branches (montesquieu)

• religious toleration, sep. church/state (voltaire)

• question religion, continuing shift of authority from outside powers to the individual (deism, atheism)

individualism

emphasis on individual (actions, worth) over that of a collective/group

social contract and associated people

govs are intended to meet social/economic needs of the people

• Hobbes: gov needs to provide order/stability bc of violent “natural state of man,” must give up some rights

• Locke: gov needs to protect natural rights (life, liberty, property; cannot be infringed upon), if gov is unjust then people have a responsibility to revolt/overthrow

• Rousseau: all men are equal, organization of society based on majority rule (general will, popular sovereignty) = protection but also freedom (freedom is to obey laws written by the people)

impacts of enlightenment

• ideological basis for revolution by challenging tradition/authority

  • inc nationalism: perceived commonality among people of shared language/religion/customs etc

• expansion of suffrage (to white non-landowning men, black men, etc)

  • great importance placed on freedom/equality, esp in US

  • calls for women’s suffrage (feminism!! ex. seneca falls convention)

• abolitionism

  • end of serfdom; serfs increasingly less needed w transition to industrial economies

  • peasant/slave revolts

• some “enlightened monarchs” emerge who are more tolerant (diversity, opportunities, etc)

general causes of independence movements (un5)

• new ideologies (enlightenment)

  • popular sovereignty: power to govern belongs to the people

  • democracy: people’s right to vote + influence gov

  • liberalism: emphasize rights protection, representative gov, economic freedom

  • constitutional gov

• inc nationalism

  • change from previous, where larger empires encompass many ethnicities/religions

• political dissent: oppose monarchy/reject authority

nationalism

inc bond/connection between + identification w one’s language, culture, customs, and those who share it with them

often comes w desire for an independent nation-state/territory that represents/protects culture

main revolutions..! (un5)

• American

• French

• Haitian

• Creole/Latin American

american revolution

• causes: enlightenment ideas, physical distance, building resentment against brit (proc of 1763, taxation without representation, mercantilist economic exploitation, etc)

• Common Sense (Thomas Paine) gathers support; Declaration of Independence lists reasons for rebellion and unalienable rights

• victory -> Constitution/Bill of Rights establishing democratic government

• model for rebellion + republican (representative)/democratic gov; first major colony to break away from EU colonial power

French Revolution

• causes: enlightenment ideas, US rev inspiration, liberte/egalite/fraternite, social inequality, economic struggles (high spending esp on war) and discontent w attempts to further raise taxes

• Third Estate ( merchants/peasants/middle class) breaks away from Estates-General, forms National Assembly

  • storm Bastille (prison symbolizing corruption)

  • Declaration of the Rights of Man (based on enlightenment, dec of independence, rousseau)

  • abolish feudalism

  • establish nation-state as the source of political authority, not king/people

  • new constitution establishes Convention as ruling body, led by radical Jacobins

• Reign of Terror: Convention beheads thousands of “anti-revolutionaries” led by Robespierre of the Committee of Public Safety; everyone eventually has enough and beheads him instead 

  • Napoleon comes to power in ensuing new constitution/gov (Directory)

Haitian Revolution

• causes: enlightenment, racial inequality, american/french revolution inspiration

• Toussaint L’Overture leads successful slave revolt despite france (napoleon) attempts to put it down

• first independent nation in latin america, first black-led country in west hemisphere

Creole/Latin American revolution

• causes: increasing creole desire for independence from spain (oppose mercantilism + want political power), napoleon invasion of spain

• Simon Bolivar leads independence wars

• many south american colonies declare independence and form govs (Cuba, Puerto Rico)

general effects of independence movements (un5)

• EU kicked out from many parts of the americas, but continuing economic dependence esp in latin america

• independence =/ freedom, ex. for slaves (USA!!!)

industrial revolution/industrialization

(period of) increased mechanization of production and the accompanied social shifts; process by which states transferred from agrarian to industrial economies

causes of industrial revolution

• new tech: spinning jenny, water frame, cotton gin, interchangeable parts, specialization of labor, assembly line

• brit suitable for industry:

  • geographic advantages: waterways, coal deposits=iron production

  • can take advantage of colonies ex. india, whose manufacturing they nerf

  • strong fleet

  • inc population

    • agricultural revolution + enclosure movement: = inc agricultural production = more food = inc rural population + fewer needed to farm, many small farmers move to cities (rapid urbanization)more food

  • investment encouraged by protection of private property (more safe) + excess wealth from slave trade

first industrial revolution inventions

mainly stayed in britain 1750-1830

• coal for steam power: steam engine allows factories to be built anywhere not just by rivers, steamships allow goods to be transported further/faster

• iron

• interchangeable parts

• mass production

second industrial revolution inventions

spread of industry to other nations 1870-1915

• oil/gasoline -> internal combustion engine used in cars

• steel: from bessemer process, stronger/more effective/cheaper than iron

• chemical engineering: synthetic dye, rubber

• electricity: lightbulb, streetcars, subways

• communication tech: telegraph, telephone, radio

effects of industrial revolution inventions

• transportation/communication = develop interior regions (instead of just coast) migration

• coal/oil dramatically inc available energy (even though they have env costs)

• inc trade, development of global economy

places w quick + effective industrialization (un5)

brit, US, JP

places w slow/less effective industrialization (un5)

france, russia, ottoman/egypt, CN

spread of industrialization to US

very effective bc shared many characteristics w britain

• huge territory = resources

• post civil war political stability

• inc population (partly bc immigrants) = labor force + market

spread of industrialization to JP

effective defensive modernization to protect trad culture during Meiji Restoration (western reform + end of isolationism)

• constitutional monarchy, equality before law, military reorganization, new education system, infrastructure like railroads/roads, etc

• private investment by zaibatsu (powerful family businesses) encouraged innovation

• did not want to become like china who was previously powerful but now getting bullied