APWH all flashcards

major religions and main areas

• christianity: europe, northeast africa, parts of middle east

• buddhism: asia

• confucianism: china

• hinduism: india

• islam: middle east, north africa, central asia, parts of europe

• judaism: middle east

song china government system

• civil service exam to enter bureaucracy

  • formation of scholar gentry class

• meritocracy in theory but mostly only wealthy people get to spend their time studying for the exam

• confucianism (filial piety) helps maintain power bc of hierarchical emphasis

• mandate of heaven: emperors granted right to rule by heaven but is conditional (must be virtuous/just)

song china social developments

• patriarchal; women have few rights (ex. foot binding)

• increasing population bc farming innovations (ex. champa rice)

• confucian revival + emphasis on filial piety helps maintain imperial rule

• urbanization

• commercialization/proto-industrialization (production > consumption/sale), sale of excess goods (gunpowder, porcelain, silk, paper) = global influence, economic growth

• greatly influences other east asian countries

japan social developments (un1)

• feudal system

  • emperor (figurehead) > shogun > daimyo (landowners) > samurai (vassals) > peasants

  • samurai bushido code: honor, loyalty

india social developments (un1)

• introduction of islam, conflict w hindu

  • bhakti movement: simplified hinduism + helped spread it

• caste system: stability but little social mobility

india empires/kingdoms (un1)

• delhi sultanate: established by islamic invaders; non-muslim oppression (ex. jizya tax)

• vijayanagara empire: established in south by hindus from delhi sultanate

• rajput kingdoms: independent hindu principalities united by islam/muslim resistance

southeast asia trade kingdoms (un1)

• majapahit kingdom: sea-based, buddhist, power through sea-route control

  • srivijaya also sea-based

• khmer empire: hindu/buddhist + religious tolerance, syncretism shown in angkor wat

dar al islam social developments

• innovations (math, greek preservation, medicine)

• islamic expansion: military, merchants, missionaries

  • shift of power from arab to turkic

abbasid caliphate

golden age of islam

• ethnically arab

• baghdad, house of wisdom

• decline: internal struggles, mongol invasion

turkic islamic states

• rise after power decline of abbasid caliphate

• seljuk empire, mamluk sultanate, delhi sultanate

• contrinuity from arab/abbasid: miitary administration, sharia law (based on quran)

africa major trades (un1)

trans-saharan trade, indian ocean trade

• slave trade w islam across saharan → islam introduction

africa trade kingdoms/cities (un1)

• east: swahili

• west: ghana, mali, songhay, hausa kingdoms

• great zimbabwe

• ethiopia

swahili

series of indian ocean trade cities

• trade goods from african interior

• heavy muslim influence

  • become islamic → join islamic trade

  • social hierarchy topped by muslim elite

  • arab/persian diasporas

  • syncretism!! swahili the language

hausa kingdoms

series of city-states

• trans-saharan trade

• no central authority = decline

great zimbabwe (un1)

• maintained indigenous religion, no islamic conversion

• gold exports

ethiopia (un1)

• christian

• hierarchical power structure

major indigenous civilizations in the americas

• mississippians

• aztec

• mayan

• inca

mississippians

mississippi river valley

• large towns dominate smaller settlements

• earth mounds, fertile soil

• rigid class structure, matrilineal

• cahokia!!

aztec

central mexico

• tenochtitlan

• advanced farming techniques!! (chinampas)

• expansionism; conquered provide tributes (food, animals, materials, slaves/sacrifices)

  • decentralized rule

• polytheistic religion

inca

peru (andean mountain range)

• expansionist; obtain land for ruler

  • mit’a: conquered must provide labor for state projects

  • bureaucracy

  • centralized rule

• polytheistic religion w focus on sun god

mayan

south mexico

• city states

• scientific advancement

• religion involved ceremonies and human sacrifice

europe social developments (un1)

• feudalism: hierarchical social system

  • decentralization, political fragmentation, fulfillment of obligations to those on other levels

  • serfs have few rights

  • manorialism: self-sufficient fiefs

• patriarchy (primogeniture)

• renaissance: revived interest in greek/roman culture

mongol empire

largest land-based empire of all time!!

established/expanded by genghis khan; further expanded by his three grandsons (batu → golden horde in russia, kublai khan in china → yuan dynasty, hulegu → ilkhanate in middle east)

pax mongolica

mongolian peace: after conquering, mongol reign was relatively peaceful!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

• liberal policies: religious tolerance, silk road/merchant protection, postal system, tax breaks for scholars

• stimulated growth of exchange networks + exchange of goods, ideas, culture, etc

• sometimes mongols assimilated into local cultures

• sometimes also hindered cultural growth due to initial brutality

impacts of mongol empire

expanded exchange networks, world trade, cultural diffusion through continuous empire + liberal policies

general causes of exchange network growth

• crusades

• empires provide stability/safety through unification/authority

• better transportation tech/knowledge

• innovations in commercial practices

• demand for luxury goods

major exchange networks and what they trade

• silk road: trading routes for luxury goods across eurasia

  • silk, porcelain; luxury goods because crossing is a lot of effort and camels have limited carrying capacity

• indian ocean: maritime trading routes dominated by persian/arab

  • more common goods, ex. textiles, spices, fruits/citrus; because ships have more cargo room

• trans-saharan: across sahara between muslim/west africa

  • gold, ivory, slaves, cloth

causes of silk road growth

• better transportation, ex. caravanserai (small inns that provided safety + culture exchange to travelers/merchants)

• innovations in commercial practices

  • money economy: using paper money instead of bartering

  • flying cash: depositing/withdrawing paper money at various locations

  • credit

• demand for luxury goods

effects of silk road growth

• powerful cities develop along trading routes (kashgar, samarkand)

• inc demand for luxury good → inc production by artisans, even at the expense of food production

causes of indian ocean trade growth

• better/safer transportation

  • maritime tech: navigation (astrolabe, compass), ship designs/innovations (junk, lateen sail, stern rudder)

  • increased environmental knowledge (ex. about monsoons) 

• commercial practices: similar to silk road, ex. credit

effects of indian ocean trade growth

• growth of states, ex. swahili

• diasporas: settlements of ethnic people away from their homeland

  • merchants/sailors interact w local culture + intermarry = mixing cultures/families

  • ex. arab/persian in east africa

• zheng he voyages further cultural diffusion (ex. spread of CN maritime tech)

causes of trans-saharan trade growth

better transportation tech (ex. camel saddle, caravans)

effects of trans-saharan trade growth

gold trade + merchant taxes = inc wealth/power of west african kingdoms

• mali esp so under mansa musa

  • facilitate trade as more merchants drawn into the trading network

• inc trade = inc administration

• songhai kingdom replaces mali after decline

general impacts of exchange network growth

• rise and fall of cities

  • growth along trade routes, ex. hangzhou

  • fall bc militaries can also travel along routes, ex. baghdad’s fall to mongols

• spread of religion, ex. buddhism to east/southeast asia

• spread of science, tech, literature, art

  • CN: gunpowder, paper, printing, porcelain, maritime/navigation tech, etc

  • muslim: medical knowledge, greek classics, etc

• spread of disease (ex. bubonic plague)

• spread of crops/farming techniques = inc population

  • champa rice to china, bananas to africa, citrus to mediterranean

• travelers record journeys and spread cultural understanding (ex. marco polo, ibn battuta, margery kempe)

land based empire

empire whose power comes from the extent of its territorial holdings

general methods for consolidating/legitimizing power (un3)

• (attempted) assimilation between cultures of conquerer/conquered

• religion: ex. EU divine right

• art/architecture: ex. France Versailles, Mughal Taj Mahal, Qing imperial portraits

• centralized bureaucracies: ensure laws are followed; ex. CN civil service exam, Ottoman devshirme

• expansion of military might: gunpowder, elite groups of soldiers ex. ottoman janissaries

• tax collection, ex. mughal zamindars, ottoman tax farmers, aztec tributes

• hierarchical systems

not everyone can maintain authority though! outdated tech, weak/corrupt leaders, religious conflicts, expensive armies

england administration (un3)

• divine right of kings: king’s right to rule is given by god, they are god’s representative

• justices of peace: officials that maintain peace + carry out the law

• bill of rights: ensure civil liberties + protection against tyrants

• parliament. duh.

france administration (un3)

• absolute power

• intendants/tax farmers: execute orders + collect taxes

• estates-general: advisors from clergy, nobility, commoners

• palace of versailles

  • very expensive to build and maintain: wealth and control over people

  • nobility must live there with him instead of spread out so they all end up kissing his ass

  • extensive gardens demonstrate power over nature

russia administration (un3)

• feudalist social hierarchy: boyar (landowner) > merchant > peasant > serf

• Ivan the Terrible is super expansionist and murdery

  • death -> Time of Troubles, conflicts over throne -> Romanov Dynasty

  • Peter + Catherine the Great: westernization (petersburg, navy, reforms, etc) at the cost of hard serf labor

• Cossacks: peasant-soldiers

social developments in europe (un3)

• protestant reformation

• counter reformation/catholic reformation

• religious treaties/wars

• renaissance

• scientific revolution

protestant reformation

• response to corrupt church practices + excessive wealth/power (ex. indulgences, simony)

• lutheranism: salvation depends on the individual/faith (sola fide), not on the middleman (church/king)

• calvinism: predetermination, elect

• anglicanism: King Henry VIII creates a new church bc he wants to remarry

catholic/counter reformation

roman catholic church’s pushback against reformation

• methods

  • inquisition: punish/torture nonbelievers

  • jesuits: missionary activity 

  • council of trent: reformation, removed a lot of corruption

• successful! protestantism contained

religious treaties/wars (un3)

• peace of augsburg

• edict of nantes

• thirty years war

peace of augsburg

german states can choose catholic or lutheran leader, churches/citizens must practice state religion

intended to end catholic/protestant conflicts

edict of nantes

religious toleration for huguenots (french protestants)

thirty years war

religious war between catholic/protestant

• ended by Peace of Westphalia: areas of Holy Roman Empire can choose to be either roman catholic, lutheran, or calvinist

• france and prussia come into power

renaissance

“rebirth,” greek/roman classic revival

• humanism: focus on human achievements/individuality rather than religion

• realisitc/proportionate art/sculpture: Michelangelo, Brunelleschi, Leonardo da Vinci, Donatello;

scientific revolution

period of major advancements in science, tech, philosophy

• scientific method: knowledge through experimentation, observation, logical reasoning

  • empiricism: using data to support hypotheses

• Gutenberg printing press, Copernicus/Galilgeo helicentric universe, Newton calculus/gravity

• atheism (no god) + deism (god is a passive “watchmaker)

• ideas that order/rationality should apply to gov/society help lead to enlightenment

ming dynasty

• established after overthrowing mongol yuan dynasty

• native chinese/han, reinstated traditional practices

  • centralized gov, confucian principles, civil service exam

  • silver currency → trade relations w spanish → inflation → weakness → get overthrown by qing dynasty (manchus)

qing dynasty

• established after overthrowing ming dynasty

• manchus, not native han, so they have to affirm legitimacy

  • imperial portraits, military power, taxes

• Kangxi and Qianlong support art + expand empire w gunpowder (only locally, not globally)

• granted limited trading rights to EU until they felt culturally threatened

japanese reaction to western influence (un3)

trade + missionaries until Tokugawa Shogunate/Edo period (Tokugawa Ieyasu)

• centralized power/control, reduced daimyo (landowner) power

• rigid caste system

• complete lockdown; National Seclusion Policy: JP cannot travel abroad, foreigners cannot visit

  • allows JP culture/art to thrive

gunpowder empires

1. ottoman

2. mughal

3. safavid

ottoman empire

invaded constantinople → istanbul

• Suleiman I: golden age, expansion up till vienna

• administration

  • devshirme: recruit christian boys by force, receive education and become gov officials loyal to sultan (ex. Janissaries, elite force of warriors)

    • upward mobility kind of

  • shariah: islamic legal system

  • tax farming: right to tax given to highest bidder

• decline due to internal struggles (weak sultans, “harem politics”), defense challenges, eventual collapse in WWI

mughal empire

south/central asia, unified indian subcontinent

• Babur: founded, replaced delhi sultanate

• Akbar: peak!! ease religious tensions through toleration and other liberal policies

  • removal of jizya tax, improve women/hindu positions, sikhism land grants; zamindar (landowning tax collectors)

• Aurangzeb: decline; hindu persecution, overexpansion, EU introduction

safavid empire

east of ottomans

• expansion under Shah Ismail

• ottoman rivals; conflict between shi’a muslims (safavid) and sunni muslims (ottoman)

  • shi’a believe only blood relatives of muhammad are his successors, sunni believe its anyone who is spiritually fit; each also believes themselves to be the true rep of islam

  • mughals are also predominantly sunni

  • Ismail’s declaration that safavids would be shia aggravated sunni/shia divide

• decline due to lavish lifestyle/military spending + oppressed sunni rebellions

gunpowder empire similarities

• turkic muslims (shia safavid, mughal/ottoman sunni)

• military dominance; use of gunpowder weapons (artillery, cannons) for expansion

  • conflicts w each other over territory/religion, ex. Safavid-Mughal conflict, Ottoman-Safavid war

• lack of modernization -> fall behind EU

  • contrast to russia, who modernized and survived

misc developments in africa (un3)

increasingly wealthy/centralized states

• songhai: islamic, salt/gold trade, expansion through military

• asanti: gold trade, expansion, military

• kongo: catholic, trade w portuguese

• angola: portuguese trading post that grew into a powerful state; portuguese attempts to exert more control resisted by Queen Nzinga but ultimately failed

causes of european exploration

• tech innovations: compass, astrolabe, lateen sail, caravel, cartography

• desire for asian luxury goods

  • sea-based routes are cheaper and more efficient

  • inc power of monarchy, which they can exert to get what they want

• desire for territory: taxes, trading

  • mercantilism

  • colonies = raw resources + new markets; though colonists often don’t like this

• preserve/spread religion

  • syncretism: combining different cultures/religions

• joint-stock companies

mercantilism

wealth measured in gold/silver, max exports/min imports (favorable balance of trade)

joint-stock companies

pool investors’ resources, finance exploration and make it less risky for investors (they share benefits and risks)

• British East India Company, Dutch East India Company (VOC)

• limited liability: investors not responsible for anything beyond their investment

portugal exploration (un4)

• explore african coast + india

  • trading post empire: control small outposts, create monopoly (spice trade)

• Prince Henry the Navigator; Vasco de Gama

spain exploration (un4)

• Ferdinand Magellan: circumnavigation

• Columbus: America

• silver trade

• conquering natives (aztec/inca)

• colonies in philippines

spanish conquering natives in the new world

• Hernando Cortes for aztecs, Francisco Pizarro for incas

• used disease, weapons, assistance from enemies

• established a new colonial society

  • social hierarchy: peninsulares (born in spain) > creoles (born in US) > mestizos (EU/NA) > mulattos (EU/Af) > zambos (Na/Af) > NA > Af

    • erased NA cultural diversity, ordered society by minority elite standards

  • coerced labor: encomienda, hacienda, mit’a

spanish coerced labor forms

• encomienda: crown grants conquistadores indigenous laborers in exchange for converting them to christianity (basically slavery)

  • protested against by some missionaries (ex. Bartolome de las Casas)

  • focus on controlling NA

• hacienda: force NA laborers to work on plantation

  • focus on controlling NA through land ownership

• mit’a: villages must send a percent of male population to silver mines

  • imitation of original incan system

Treaty of Tordesillas

longitudinal split of the americas between spain/portugal; west is spain’s and east is portugal’s

england exploration in the new world

• roanoke island; jamestown (13 colonies)

• trading posts in india

france exploration in the new world

fur trade in canada (quebec)

dutch exploration in the new world

• new amsterdam

• indian ocean trade

commercial revolution

transformation to trade-based economy (gold/silver)

columbian exchange

linking of E/W hemispheres (EU/US/Af); transatlantic sharing of biological/environmental elements, ex. plants, animals, food, and disease

columbian exchange; old → new

• animals: horses (better hunting), pigs, cows, sheep (food staples)

• foods: wheat, rice, sugar, etc = varied diets, longer lifespan

• disease: bubonic plague, measles, malaria, flu, smallpox

  • kill off millions of native population

• catholicism

columbian exchange; new → old

• crops: maize, potato, bean, squash →pop growth, longer lifespan

• cash crops: sugarcane, tobacco, cacao

• syphilis

triangular trade

economic trade of goods between Europe, Africa, and the Americas

• US provides raw mats, EU provides manufactured, Af provides slaves

transatlantic slave trade

• why: demand for farm/mine labor; NA died to disease/easily ran away; indentured not used to labor + had limited time

• exchanged w african rulers for weapons (though some protested); increasingly brutal methods in taking people

• race-based + hereditary; justified brutality

• far larger scale than indian ocean/mediterranean slave trade

• middle passage: passage for slaves from africa to america; very deadly, horrible conditions

impacts of transatlantic slave trade

• development of african diaspora: creole language, music, food, etc

• initially fostered the growth of the african states who participated through global connections, even if they were EU centered (ex. asante, kongo)

• overall weakened african kingdoms: depopulation, family structure disruption (polygyny), gender imbalance, inc violence, economic dependency on EU

resistance to EU interference during age of exploration

• asia: JP isolation, CN emphasis on traditional values

• americas:

  • metacom’s war: final failed NA attempt to drive out EU

  • maroon wars: among runaway slaves, led by queen nanny in jamaica

  • pueblo revolt: against forced religious conversion

• europe:

  • fronde: against absolutism + taxes

  • pugachev’s rebellion: against catherine the great for giving nobles too much power

also sort of related: maratha empire

overall impacts of transatlantic connection

• global trade = EU power/wealth

• emergence of EU maritime trading empires/ports

  • also entrance into indian ocean network

• spread of sugar + silver

  • silver highly desired in CN

• social hierarchies: new ethnicity/race-based political elites, ex. spanish in casta system, manchu in qing dynasty

misc continuities during age of exploration

• middle east/asian use of indian ocean network

• overland route (ex. silk road) domination by asian states

enlightenment

intellectual movement applying new ways of understanding (ex. rationalism) to natural world + human relations/society

emphasis on individualism, freedom, self-determination, challenging authority, human accomplishment, revolution

developed from scientific revolution/renaissance (rationalism, imperialism)

main ideas of enlightenment

• individualism

• social contract

• separation/checks on power of branches (montesquieu)

• religious toleration, sep. church/state (voltaire)

• question religion, continuing shift of authority from outside powers to the individual (deism, atheism)

individualism

emphasis on individual (actions, worth) over that of a collective/group

social contract and associated people

govs are intended to meet social/economic needs of the people

• Hobbes: gov needs to provide order/stability bc of violent “natural state of man,” must give up some rights

• Locke: gov needs to protect natural rights (life, liberty, property; cannot be infringed upon), if gov is unjust then people have a responsibility to revolt/overthrow

• Rousseau: all men are equal, organization of society based on majority rule (general will, popular sovereignty) = protection but also freedom (freedom is to obey laws written by the people)

impacts of enlightenment

• ideological basis for revolution by challenging tradition/authority

  • inc nationalism: perceived commonality among people of shared language/religion/customs etc

• expansion of suffrage (to white non-landowning men, black men, etc)

  • great importance placed on freedom/equality, esp in US

  • calls for women’s suffrage (feminism!! ex. seneca falls convention)

• abolitionism

  • end of serfdom; serfs increasingly less needed w transition to industrial economies

  • peasant/slave revolts

• some “enlightened monarchs” emerge who are more tolerant (diversity, opportunities, etc)

general causes of independence movements (un5)

• new ideologies (enlightenment)

  • popular sovereignty: power to govern belongs to the people

  • democracy: people’s right to vote + influence gov

  • liberalism: emphasize rights protection, representative gov, economic freedom

  • constitutional gov

• inc nationalism

  • change from previous, where larger empires encompass many ethnicities/religions

• political dissent: oppose monarchy/reject authority

nationalism

inc bond/connection between + identification w one’s language, culture, customs, and those who share it with them

often comes w desire for an independent nation-state/territory that represents/protects culture

main revolutions..! (un5)

• American

• French

• Haitian

• Creole/Latin American

american revolution

• causes: enlightenment ideas, physical distance, building resentment against brit (proc of 1763, taxation without representation, mercantilist economic exploitation, etc)

• Common Sense (Thomas Paine) gathers support; Declaration of Independence lists reasons for rebellion and unalienable rights

• victory -> Constitution/Bill of Rights establishing democratic government

• model for rebellion + republican (representative)/democratic gov; first major colony to break away from EU colonial power

French Revolution

• causes: enlightenment ideas, US rev inspiration, liberte/egalite/fraternite, social inequality, economic struggles (high spending esp on war) and discontent w attempts to further raise taxes

• Third Estate ( merchants/peasants/middle class) breaks away from Estates-General, forms National Assembly

  • storm Bastille (prison symbolizing corruption)

  • Declaration of the Rights of Man (based on enlightenment, dec of independence, rousseau)

  • abolish feudalism

  • establish nation-state as the source of political authority, not king/people

  • new constitution establishes Convention as ruling body, led by radical Jacobins

• Reign of Terror: Convention beheads thousands of “anti-revolutionaries” led by Robespierre of the Committee of Public Safety; everyone eventually has enough and beheads him instead 

  • Napoleon comes to power in ensuing new constitution/gov (Directory)

Haitian Revolution

• causes: enlightenment, racial inequality, american/french revolution inspiration

• Toussaint L’Overture leads successful slave revolt despite france (napoleon) attempts to put it down

• first independent nation in latin america, first black-led country in west hemisphere

Creole/Latin American revolution

• causes: increasing creole desire for independence from spain (oppose mercantilism + want political power), napoleon invasion of spain

• Simon Bolivar leads independence wars

• many south american colonies declare independence and form govs (Cuba, Puerto Rico)

general effects of independence movements (un5)

• EU kicked out from many parts of the americas, but continuing economic dependence esp in latin america

• independence =/ freedom, ex. for slaves (USA!!!)

industrial revolution/industrialization

(period of) increased mechanization of production and the accompanied social shifts; process by which states transferred from agrarian to industrial economies

causes of industrial revolution

• new tech: spinning jenny, water frame, cotton gin, interchangeable parts, specialization of labor, assembly line

• brit suitable for industry:

  • geographic advantages: waterways, coal deposits=iron production

  • can take advantage of colonies ex. india, whose manufacturing they nerf

  • strong fleet

  • inc population

    • agricultural revolution + enclosure movement: = inc agricultural production = more food = inc rural population + fewer needed to farm, many small farmers move to cities (rapid urbanization)more food

  • investment encouraged by protection of private property (more safe) + excess wealth from slave trade

first industrial revolution inventions

mainly stayed in britain 1750-1830

• coal for steam power: steam engine allows factories to be built anywhere not just by rivers, steamships allow goods to be transported further/faster

• iron

• interchangeable parts

• mass production

second industrial revolution inventions

spread of industry to other nations 1870-1915

• oil/gasoline -> internal combustion engine used in cars

• steel: from bessemer process, stronger/more effective/cheaper than iron

• chemical engineering: synthetic dye, rubber

• electricity: lightbulb, streetcars, subways

• communication tech: telegraph, telephone, radio

effects of industrial revolution inventions

• transportation/communication = develop interior regions (instead of just coast) migration

• coal/oil dramatically inc available energy (even though they have env costs)

• inc trade, development of global economy

places w quick + effective industrialization (un5)

brit, US, JP

places w slow/less effective industrialization (un5)

france, russia, ottoman/egypt, CN

spread of industrialization to US

very effective bc shared many characteristics w britain

• huge territory = resources

• post civil war political stability

• inc population (partly bc immigrants) = labor force + market

spread of industrialization to JP

effective defensive modernization to protect trad culture during Meiji Restoration (western reform + end of isolationism)

• constitutional monarchy, equality before law, military reorganization, new education system, infrastructure like railroads/roads, etc

• private investment by zaibatsu (powerful family businesses) encouraged innovation

• did not want to become like china who was previously powerful but now getting bullied