APGOPO EXAM

Federalist 10

Addresses how to guard against factions (groups of citizens with interests adverse to the rights of other citizens or the community). Argues that a large republic is better.

Federalist 51

Advocates for separation of powers with checks and balances to maintain liberty while preventing government tyranny through independent branches, bicameral legislature, and federalism.

Federalist 70

Argues for a strong, unitary executive leader to ensure accountability and energy in the government.

Federalist 78

Judicial branch ensures laws are constitutional with judicial review, protecting against legislative overreach.

Brutus 1

- First of the ANTI-federalist papers

• Raises the question: which is better for freedom- confederacy of state governments or powerful central government?

• Argued Confederacy was better than the republic the Constitution would establish

  • Said that through the Necessary and Proper Clause and Supremacy Clause the state governments would lose their authority

• His primary concerns:

  • Collecting taxes

  • The courts: if national courts are more powerful, state governments will become unnecessary

  • Size of country: not

Declaration of Independence

• Primarily authored by Thomas Jefferson but others contributed too

• Asserts that governments are there to secure rights and should be changed if they fail to do so

• “All men are created equal” establishes interest in civil rights and equality

• Reflects the ideas of Enlightenment (particularly natural rights and the consent of the governed) 

• Included a list of grievances 

• Statement of colonial unity and independence from Britain 

Articles of Confederation

• First governing document of the U.S. 

• Established a loose alliance of independent states and a weak central government

• Wanted to preserve states’ rights

• Had a unicameral legislature (no judicial or executive branch)

• Congress couldn’t collect taxes or regulate commerce 

• Weak central authority meant that they couldn’t handle economic challenges or disputes between states

Letter From a Birmingham Jail

• Written by Martin Luther King Jr

• Advocated for nonviolent civil disobedience as a response to racial injustices

• Responded to the critcisms of white clergymen who said his actions were “unwise and untimely”

Popular Sovereignty

Power to govern is in the hands of the peopl

Social Contract Consent of the Governed

Idea that individuals give some of their freedoms to the government in exchange for safety and security 

Natural Rights

Rights people have from natural laws apart from a govt (therefore CAN’T be taken away by govt)

Seperation of Powers

Power should be split into 3 branches

Checks and Balances

Parts of the Constitution working to prevent tyranny.

Limited Government

Prevented from tyranny through a system of check and balances and distribution of power

Particapatory Government

Broad participation in politics by almost ALL members of society 

Pluralist Democracy

Groups of people associate with interest groups who then compete tot influence policy.

Elitist Democracy

More limited participation based on assumption that only very educated people can understand politics.

Articles of Condederation

• Pre-dated the U.S. Constitution 

• States strong, national govt WEAK

• Only 1 branch in fed. govt. 

• Framers were worried about dangers of large, centralized govt (wouldn’t be able to represent the views of the people because it would be so separated from them) 

Shay’s Rebellion

• Armed uprising led by Massachussetts farmers 

• They were former Revolutionary War vets who didn’t get paid because Congress didn’t have the power to tax and make money

• But the farmers still had to pay high taxes in MA; they couldn’t afford them and the state forced them to give up their farms

• There was no national army to respond to the uprising, and the event highlighted the weakness of the AOC

  • Specifically, the lack of national security and the inability to deal with financial crises 

Federalists

Advocated for sharing of power between state and national governments.

Anti-Federalists

WCanted a more decentralized government with greater states’ rights

Constitutional Convention

Initially planned on modifying the AOC but ended up reframing the entire govt to create a stronger federal system.

Virginia Plan

Congressional representation would be proportional to population (big states would have more power), bicameral legislature.

New Jersey Plan

Each state would be represented with one vote (small states would have disproportionate representation), unicameral legislative branch, 3 presidents.

Connecticut Compromise

Introduced the idea of a bicameral legislature (representation by population in the house, same representation in the senate).

Commerce Clause

Grants Congress the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, between states, and with native tribes.

Supremacy Clause

The Constitution and federal laws take precedence over state laws in cases of conflict.

Neccesary and Proper Clause

Gave Congress the power to carry out enumerated powers (grants implied powers)

Three Fifths Compromise

Each slave is equal to ⅗ when determining state population for representation in the house

Electoral College

 # in house of reps = # of electorsE

Enumerated Powers

• Not explicitly written but implied, necessary for carrying out implied powers, “necessary and proper” clause

  • Ex: borrow money, regulate commerce, establish post offices and postal roads

Implied Powers

Explicitly given to the federal government in the Constitution 

• Ex: used to create a U.S. bank, military draft, IRS, national minimum wage

Federalism

Sharing of power between state and national governments 

Concurrent Powers

Shared by federal and state governments

Reserved Powers

kept by the state

Categorical Grants

Given to states as long as they comply with specific federal standards

• Ex: used to incentivize states to integrate schools 

Block Grants

Given to states for a broad purpose, states can spend the money as they see fit

• Ex: Congress gives $$ for crime management, states decides HOW to do that (more police, invest in rehab, etc) 

Mandates

When Congress gives an order but no money to fund it

Checks and Balances/Separation of Power

• Legislative branch (Congress) proposes and makes laws

• Executive branch executes and enforces laws

• Executive branch can veto laws made in Congress

• Judicial branch can rule on the constitutionality of the laws/actions

Bicameral

Two houses in the legislative branch

Impeach

Power given to the house, once a federal officer is impeached they can be tried and removed by the senate (though several presidents have been impeached, none have ever been removed from office) 

Filibuster

Legislative tactic used in the Senate to delay or block a vote on a bill using prolonged debate

Cloture

If 60 senators vote for cloture it can counter a filibuster and end debate 

Responsibilities of House

• Introduce revenue bills

• Impeach federal officers

• Select president if no one wins the Electoral College

• Determine tax police

• Debate limited to 1 hour

• Speaker of House determines who talks

Responsibilities of Senate

• Advise and consent for presidential appointees

• Try and REMOVE federal officers (after they have been impeached)

• Approve treaties (with a ⅔ vote)

• Filibuster 

• Unlimited time for debate

Incumbancy

Office holders seeking re-election to the same position 

Apportionment

The process of distributing seats in a legislative body 

• Primarily based on the results of the census

Redistricting

State legislators redraw district lines based on population changes

Gerrymandering

State legislators redraw district lines using data about where people live and what party they vote for

• Used to create districts that benefit one party

• Racial gerrymandering redistricts with racial communities in mind -- typically trying to concentrate or dilute racial majorities in same or different districts (unconstitutional) 

• Partisan redistricting favors one party and is constitutional 

Earmarks

Funding sent to a legislator’s home district (usually related to infrastructure or military)

Pork Barrel Spending

General patterns in discretionary funding that has a political motivation for individual members (something to specific to helping a legislature’s constituents)

Logrolling

Politicians “trade” each other’s support for one issue or piece of legislation (typically in the form of legislative votes) 

• Pork-barrel legislation and lorolling effect lawmaking in Congress by prompting legislatures to get legislation passed that will help their constituents 

  • - Also encourages them to work with other lawmakers to get more votes 

Mandatory Spending

Must be spent for certain programs based on laws that have been passed

• Ex: Social Security or Medicaid

Discretionary Spending

Everything else (about 40% of the budget in 2019) 

Revenue

Amount of money coming in to the government

Defecit

Difference between the money they brought in and the money that needs to be spent 

Appropriation

Legal authority given by Congress to allocate federal funds for specific government programs

• There are 12 annual appropriations bills that fund various departments/agencies such as health, education, and defense 

Entitlement Programs

Government program that provides support to those who qualify 

• Ex: Social Security, Medicaid 

Bully Pulpit

President’s ability to use their well known position to directly address the public and promote their agenda 

Signing Statements

Written pronouncements issued by the president at the time of signing a bill into law

• Outline the president’s interpretation of the law

• Express concerns about certain provisions

• Can reflect the increasing power of the president to shape legislation and policy 

Spoils System

Practice in which a political party, after winning an election, rewards its supporters with govt jobs and other benefits 

Patronage

Practice of providing govt jobs to individuals in exchange for their political support or loyalty

Merit System

Hiring/promoting govt employees based on their abilities or skills rather than political connections

Civil Service System

Body of govt employees who are hired based on merit

• Designed to reduce political influence in govt operations 

Hatch Act

govt employees are prohibited from engaging in political campaign activities

Iron Triangles

alliances of congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies and interest groups 

Issue Network

Temporary coalitions that form to promote a common issue or agenda

Independent Executive Agencies

Governmental organizations that work outside the control of the executive branch

• Designed to enforce laws/regulations in certain areas

• Have a degree of autonomy that allows them to act with direct political influence, ensuring their decisions are made based on their expertise, not politics

Independent Regulatory Commission

Federal agencies created by Congress that are designed to regulate specific economic activities 

• Operate separately from executive branch, which allows them to work without political pressures

Goverment Corporations

Entities created by the govt to perform services that could be provided by private corporations 

• ex: Amtrak  

Administrative Discretion

Authority granted to govt agencies to make decisions within the framework of existing laws/regulations

Administrative Adjunction

Process by which an administrative agency resolves disputes through formal hearings and decisions 

• Process allows agencies to enforce regulations without needing to go through the traditional court system 

Congressional Checks

• Power of the purse: reducing funding for programs

• Congressional oversight (hearings)

• Confirming or rejecting presidential appointees

Executive Checks

• President can appoint and fire cabinet secretaries and other appointed officials

• Can issue executive orders that shape actions of bureaucratic agencies

Judicial Checks

Chevron Doctrine provides a framework for judicial review of agency actions 

Original Jurisdiction

Court’s power to hear a case for the first time before it is reviewed by a higher court

Appelate Jurisdiction

Authority of a higher court to review the decisions made by a lower court

Judicial Review

Power of the courts to review acts of other branches of govt and the states

Judicial Restraint

When judges stick closely to precedent and avoid unnecessary changes to the legal system

Judicial Activism

when judges make decisions based on their policy views rather than their honnest interpretation of the law 

Judicial Implementation

How/whether judicial decisions are translated into public policies in a broader sense than just the parties involved in the case