AP Psychology Unit 1: History and Research Methods

Psychology

The science and study of behavior and mental processes.

Goals of Psychology

To describe, explain, and classify behavior; predict conditions triggering behaviors; apply knowledge to promote goals and prevent unwanted behavior.

Careers in Psychology

Specialty areas include Clinical/Counseling, Forensic, Educational, Industrial-organizational, and Psychiatry.

Psychiatry

A field requiring a medical degree, allowing professionals to prescribe medication.

Nature vs Nurture

The debate on the influence of genetics and environment on behavior, with the conclusion that both play a role.

Natural Selection

The principle that inherited traits aiding survival and reproduction are likely passed down.

Evolutionary Psychology

Focuses on applying natural selection to the mind and behavior.

Behavior Genetics

Studies the impact of genetic and environmental factors on behavior.

Trephination

A surgical procedure involving drilling a hole in the skull to relieve pressure or treat various conditions.

Socrates & Plato

Believed in dualism, where the mind and body are separate, and in innate knowledge.

Aristotle

Argued for monism, where the mind and body are one, and that knowledge is gained through experience.

Rene Descartes

Advocated for dualism, proposing the mind and body as distinct entities with free will.

Sir Francis Bacon

Developed the scientific method and emphasized perceiving patterns and remembering events.

John Locke

Proposed the concept of the mind as a 'tabula rasa' shaped by experience.

Wilhelm Wundt

Established the first psychology research lab and coined the term 'psychologist', known for introspection.

Sigmund Freud

Founder of psychoanalysis, identifying the id, ego, and super ego in the mind.

William James

Introduced functionalism, seeking causal relationships between internal and external behaviors.

Structuralism

Focuses on the basic components of the mind, while functionalism emphasizes the purpose of behavior.

Edward Titchener

Further developed structuralism to analyze conscious experiences.

Modern Psychological Perspectives

Include the behavioral perspective, focusing on observable actions and learned behavior.

Humanistic

Humans have the desire to reach their full potential; emphasize free will and motivation (Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers)

Psychodynamic

Emphasizes the unconscious mind; repressed memories, free association, & dream interpretation (Sigmund Freud)

Biological

Physical basis for behavior, emphasis on nervous and endocrine system

Cognitive

Focuses on how humans gather, store, and process sensory information, with an emphasis on memory, thought, and problem-solving

Socio-cultural

Explores how culture and society affect behavior, thoughts, and feelings

Evolutionary

Focuses on how the principles of evolution explain psychological processes and phenomena, with a focus on natural selection (Charles Darwin & Robert Sapolsky)

Critical Thinking

Thinking style that examines assumptions, appraises sources, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

The Scientific Method

A process involving observation, theory development, hypothesis testing, experimentation, evaluation, theory modification, and replication

Experimental Research

A method where the investigator manipulates variables under controlled conditions to observe changes in another variable

Descriptive/Correlational Research

A method where variables cannot be manipulated, focusing on behavior patterns or links between variables

Experiment

A controlled investigation method used to establish cause-and-effect relationships

Hypothesis

A testable, tentative statement describing the relationship between variables

Independent Variable

The factor manipulated by the experimenter

Dependent Variable

The factor measured by the experimenter

Operational Definition

A precise description of how a variable in a study will be manipulated and measured

Control Group

Subjects who do not receive special treatment given to the experimental group

Confounding Variables

External factors that can affect experiment results, making it hard to determine the true cause

Random Selection

Gathering participants so all members of a population have an equal chance of being chosen

Random Assignment

Ensures participants have an equal chance to be assigned to any group or condition in a study

Double-blind Procedure

A research strategy where neither participants nor experimenters know group assignments to prevent bias

Replication

Repeating an experiment to ensure similar results can be obtained

Sampling Bias

Occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn

Experimenter Bias

When a researcher's expectations influence the obtained data

Placebo Effect

Subjects feeling change despite receiving an empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment

Hawthorne Effect

Modification of behavior by study participants due to being observed or singled out for special treatment

Barnum Effect

Occurs when individuals believe personality descriptions apply specifically to them, even when they are general

Naturalistic Observation

Observing subjects in a natural setting to capture honest behavior

Survey

Descriptive technique to collect self-reported attitudes and behaviors

Representative Random Sample

Participants chosen fairly without bias to represent a population

Descriptive Statistics

Used to organize and summarize data

Inferential Statistics

Interprets data to draw conclusions

Mean

Average of a score's distribution

Median

Score in the center of the distribution of scores

Mode

Most common score in a distribution

Standard Deviation

Index of variability in a set of data

Correlation

A relationship between two variables

Correlational Coefficient

Numerical index of the relationship strength between variables

Positive Correlation

Variables trend in the same direction

Ex: The more you study, the higher your grade.

Negative Correlation

Variables trend in opposite directions

Ex: The more absences you have, the lower

your grade.

Illusory Correlation

Believing in a relationship between variables that doesn't exist

Regression Toward the Mean

Tendency for extreme scores/events to return to average

APA Ethical Guidelines

Rules for ethical research practices on humans and animals

What is the Stanford Prison Experiment?

A controversial study on social roles and external pressures.

What was the aim of the Stanford Prison Experiment?

To show how circumstances can bring out the worst personality traits in people and how social roles and external pressures can influence our actions.

What are some criticisms of the Stanford Prison Experiment?

Criticism includes lack of realism, unrepresentative sample, lack of informed consent, and manipulation.

Ecological Validity

Degree to which a setup matches real-world situations

Informed Consent

Participants' agreement after understanding the study's purpose

Empiricism

Knowledge gained through observation and experience

Functionalism

Focuses on the purpose of consciousness and behavior

Behaviorism

Studying observable behavior without considering mental processes

Cognitive Neuroscience

Study of brain mechanisms underlying cognition

Biopsychosocial Approach

Understanding behavior through biological, psychological, and social factors

Psychometrics

Study of psychological measurement