Middle Ages Review

Beowulf

• Who he is: The main hero of the epic, a Geatish warrior (from Geatland, now southern Sweden).

• Traits: Brave, loyal, honorable, strong, and confident — the model of an Anglo-Saxon hero.

• Key points:

  • Travels to Denmark to help King Hrothgar defeat Grendel.

  • Fights three major battles: Grendel, Grendel’s mother (Merewif), and later in life, a dragon.

Becomes king of the Geats and rules for fifty years before dying in his final battle with the dragon.

Hrothgar

• Who he is: King of the Danes, ruler of the great hall Herot.

• Traits: Wise, aged, generous, but troubled by Grendel’s attacks.

• Key points:

  • Built Herot to celebrate his people’s victories and wealth.

  • Represents a good king who values loyalty and wisdom.

  • Acts as a mentor or father figure to Beowulf, warning him about the dangers of pride.

Herot (Heorot)

• What it is: The grand mead hall built by Hrothgar in Denmark.

• Symbolism:

  • A place of celebration, community, and the strength of the kingdom.

  • Grendel’s repeated attacks on Herot represent evil and chaos threatening order and civilization.

• Key event: Grendel terrorizes Herot for 12 years until Beowulf arrives.

Unferth (Unfirth)

• Who he is: One of Hrothgar’s warriors.

• Traits: Proud, envious, skeptical of Beowulf at first.

• Key points:

  • Challenges Beowulf’s reputation by bringing up a supposed failed swimming match.

  • Later respects Beowulf and even gives him his sword, Hrunting, to use against Grendel’s mother.

  • Symbolizes human jealousy but also redemption when he acknowledges Beowulf’s greatness.

Hrunting

• What it is: Unferth’s sword, lent to Beowulf before his battle with Grendel’s mother.

• Key points:

  • Supposedly a powerful, legendary weapon — but it fails to harm Grendel’s mother.

  • Beowulf instead finds a giant’s sword in her lair and kills her with that.

  • Symbolizes how human weapons can fail when facing supernatural evil.

Grendel

• Who he is: A monster descended from Cain (the biblical murderer).

• Traits: Vengeful, violent, resentful of human joy and community.

• Key points:

  • Attacks Herot for 12 years, killing and eating Hrothgar’s men.

  • Represents evil, envy, and isolation.

  • Beowulf kills him by tearing off his arm with his bare hands.

Merewif (Grendel’s Mother)

• Who she is: Grendel’s mother, often called the “merewif” (lake woman or sea witch).

• Key points:

  • Lives in a dark, haunted lake (the “mere”).

  • Attacks Herot to avenge her son’s death.

  • Beowulf follows her to her underwater lair and kills her with a giant’s sword.

  • Symbolizes vengeance and the continuation of evil.

Dragon

• Guards a hoard of treasure; becomes enraged when a thief steals from it.

• Beowulf goes to fight it as king — this is his final battle.

• He kills the dragon but is fatally wounded, marking the end of his life and reign.

• Symbolizes greed, fate, and death — the last great test of Beowulf’s heroism.

Wiglaf

• Who he is: A young warrior and loyal follower of Beowulf.

• Key points:

  • The only one who stays to help Beowulf fight the dragon while the other warriors flee.

  • Represents loyalty, courage, and the passing of heroism to a new generation.

  • After Beowulf’s death, Wiglaf rebukes the cowardly warriors and becomes a symbol of true honor.

Summary of Beowulf

Part 1: Grendel’s Terror

• The story begins in Denmark, where King Hrothgar rules the Danes.

• Hrothgar builds a grand mead hall, called Herot, where his warriors feast and celebrate.

• But nearby lives Grendel, a monster descended from Cain (the first murderer in the Bible).

• Grendel hates the sound of joy and attacks Herot at night, killing and eating many of Hrothgar’s men.

• This goes on for twelve years, leaving the Danes hopeless and grieving.

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Part 2: Beowulf Arrives

• News of Grendel’s attacks spreads across the sea to Geatland (in modern-day Sweden).

• Beowulf, a noble warrior of the Geats, hears of Hrothgar’s trouble and decides to help.

• Beowulf sails to Denmark with his men to face Grendel and restore peace.

• At Herot, Hrothgar welcomes Beowulf, remembering how Beowulf’s father once received help from him.

• During the feast, a warrior named Unferth doubts Beowulf’s bravery, but Beowulf defends his honor by telling stories of his past victories.
  Part 3: The Battle with Grendel

  • That night, Beowulf and his men sleep in Herot, waiting for Grendel.

  • When the monster enters, Beowulf grabs Grendel’s arm with his bare hands — refusing to use a sword because Grendel uses no weapon.

  • A fierce struggle follows; Beowulf’s grip is so strong that he rips Grendel’s arm off.

  • Mortally wounded, Grendel flees to his swampy home and dies.

  • The Danes celebrate, hanging Grendel’s arm in Herot as a trophy.

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  Part 4: Grendel’s Mother’s Revenge

  • That night, Grendel’s mother (the merewif) comes to avenge her son.

  • She kills one of Hrothgar’s closest friends and takes back Grendel’s arm.

  • Beowulf vows to hunt her down.

  • He travels to her dark lake (the mere) and dives underwater to her lair.

  • Unferth lends Beowulf his sword, Hrunting, but it fails to harm her.

  • Beowulf finds a giant’s sword in her cave and uses it to kill Grendel’s mother.

  • He also finds Grendel’s dead body and cuts off his head as a trophy.

  • Beowulf returns to Herot with the head, and Hrothgar praises him, giving him many gifts and wise advice about leadership and pride.
    

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  Part 5: Beowulf’s Return and Reign

  • Beowulf sails home to Geatland, where he is greeted by his king, Hygelac.

  • After Hygelac and his son die, Beowulf becomes king and rules wisely and peacefully for fifty years.

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  Part 6: The Dragon

  • In his old age, Beowulf faces his final challenge: a fire-breathing dragon.

  • The dragon becomes enraged after a thief steals a cup from its treasure hoard.

  • Beowulf feels responsible for his people’s safety and decides to face the dragon himself.

  • When the fight begins, Beowulf’s warriors run away in fear — all except one: Wiglaf, a loyal young soldier.

  • Together, Beowulf and Wiglaf kill the dragon, but Beowulf is mortally wounded.

  • Before dying, Beowulf thanks God for his life and asks Wiglaf to bring him some of the dragon’s treasure so he can see what he won for his people.

  • Wiglaf mourns his king and rebukes the cowardly warriors.

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  Part 7: Beowulf’s Death and Legacy

  • Beowulf’s body is burned on a great funeral pyre, and a tower is built in his honor near the sea so sailors can remember him.

  • The poem ends with sadness and admiration — the people fear what will happen without their brave king, but Beowulf’s courage and honor will live on.
    Themes and Meanings

    • Heroism and bravery — Beowulf’s courage defines the ideal hero.

    • Good vs. evil — Grendel, his mother, and the dragon symbolize chaos and destruction.

    • Fate and mortality — Even great heroes must die, but their deeds earn them eternal glory.

    • Loyalty and honor — Beowulf and Wiglaf embody loyalty to one’s lord and people.

Chanson de geste

• What it is: A medieval epic poem written in Old French, celebrating heroic deeds, loyalty, and warfare for God and king.

• Importance: The Song of Roland is the most famous chanson de geste, forming part of the “Matter of France” — tales centered on Charlemagne and his knights.

• Purpose: These poems glorified feudal values — courage, honor, loyalty, and Christian faith — often written to inspire knights.

Charlemagne

• Who he is: The legendary King of the Franks and Holy Roman Emperor.

• Traits: Wise, powerful, deeply religious, but aged and weary from war.

• Role/Importance: He represents the ideal Christian ruler and divine authority. In the poem, he is betrayed by Ganelon and avenges Roland’s death. His rule symbolizes God’s will on Earth.

Einhard

• Who he is: A historical figure — Charlemagne’s real-life biographer who wrote Vita Karoli Magni (The Life of Charlemagne).

• Importance to the poem: While he is not a character in The Song of Roland, his writings inspired the poem’s portrayal of Charlemagne as a saint-like hero and model Christian king.

Count Roland

• Who he is: Charlemagne’s nephew and the poem’s hero.

• Traits: Brave, loyal, proud, and sometimes reckless.

• Importance: Roland leads the rear guard of Charlemagne’s army at Roncevaux Pass and refuses to call for help until it’s too late, demonstrating both his heroism and tragic pride (hubris). His courage and death make him a Christian martyr.

Oliver

• Who he is: Roland’s close friend and fellow knight.

• Traits: Wise, prudent, and loyal — a foil to Roland’s rashness.

• Importance: Oliver warns Roland to blow his horn for help when ambushed, but Roland refuses. Their contrast represents the medieval balance between courage and wisdom.

Archbishop Turpin

• Who he is: A warrior-priest who fights alongside Roland and blesses the knights.

• Traits: Brave, pious, and compassionate.

• Importance: Symbolizes the union of Church and knightly virtue — he fights physically and spiritually, absolving the soldiers’ sins before death.

Ganelon

• Who he is: Roland’s stepfather and Charlemagne’s vassal.

• Traits: Treacherous, jealous, vengeful.

• Importance: He betrays Roland and the French army to the Saracens, leading to the ambush. He represents feudal disloyalty and human corruption within an idealized Christian world.

Durendal

• What it is: Roland’s legendary sword.

• Importance: A symbol of divine power and Christian faith — said to contain holy relics in its hilt (a tooth of St. Peter, hair of St. Denis, and a piece of Mary’s robe). Roland tries to destroy it before dying so enemies cannot claim it.

First Crusade

• What it is: A historical event (1096–1099) when European Christians fought to reclaim Jerusalem from Muslim control.

• Connection to the poem: The Song of Roland was written around the time of the First Crusade and reflects the same spirit — Christian heroism, holy war, and sacrifice against Muslim foes.

Roncevaux (Roncevaux Pass)

• What it is: A mountain pass in the Pyrenees between France and Spain.

• Importance: The site of the ambush where Roland and his men are slaughtered by the Saracens after Ganelon’s betrayal. In real history, the attackers were Basques — the poem turns it into a battle between Christians and Muslims.

Oliphant

• What it is: Roland’s horn made from an elephant’s tusk.

• Importance: Symbol of loyalty and duty. Roland refuses to blow it when Oliver advises him (because he sees it as cowardly), but he finally does when dying — too late. The blast is so strong it bursts his temples, showing his tragic pride.

Roland’s Death

• What happens: After blowing the oliphant and fatally wounding himself, Roland tries to destroy Durendal, prays for forgiveness, and dies facing Spain, offering his soul to God.

• Importance: His death is a blend of heroism, faith, and tragic flaw — a perfect example of medieval Christian knighthood.

Charlemagne’s Revenge

• What happens: Charlemagne returns, defeats the Saracen army, and captures the Muslim king Marsile. Later, he executes Ganelon for treason after a dramatic trial.

• Importance: His vengeance restores divine justice and order — showing that betrayal and evil cannot triumph over God’s chosen ruler.

Summary of The Song of Roland

Charlemagne and his army have fought in Spain for seven years, conquering all except the city of Saragossa, ruled by the Muslim King Marsile. Seeking peace, Marsile sends gifts and offers to convert — but it’s a trap. Charlemagne sends Roland’s stepfather, Ganelon, as an envoy. Ganelon, angry that Roland nominated him, plots revenge by conspiring with Marsile to ambush Charlemagne’s rearguard — led by Roland, Oliver, and Archbishop Turpin — at Roncevaux Pass.

As the Saracens attack, Oliver urges Roland to blow the oliphant to call Charlemagne for help, but Roland refuses out of pride. The French knights fight valiantly but are overwhelmed. When only a few remain, Roland finally blows the horn so hard his temples burst. Charlemagne hears it, but by the time he returns, Roland is dying. He tries to break his sword, Durendal, to prevent it from being captured, then dies a martyr’s death, his soul carried to heaven by angels.

Charlemagne avenges him by pursuing the Saracens, defeating them miraculously with God’s help. Ganelon is captured, tried for treason, and executed brutally. The poem ends with Charlemagne grieving, reminded by an angel that new battles await — showing that the struggle for faith and justice never ends.

Themes

• Christian faith vs. Muslim “infidels” (Crusade mentality)

• Loyalty to king and God

• Heroism and sacrifice

• Betrayal and justice

• Pride and repentance

Sir Gawain

• Who he is: A knight of King Arthur’s Round Table and Arthur’s nephew.

• Traits: Brave, honorable, humble, and loyal—but human, capable of fear and error.

• Role: The main hero who accepts the Green Knight’s challenge to protect King Arthur’s honor. His journey tests his chivalry, courage, and honesty.

King Arthur

• Who he is: The legendary King of Camelot.

• Traits: Noble, youthful, and honorable.

• Role: Host of the Christmas feast where the Green Knight appears. He represents the ideal of a just ruler and sets the tone for knightly behavior.

Green Man / Green Knight

• Who he is: A mysterious, supernatural knight completely green in color.

• Symbolism: Nature, rebirth, and the challenge of testing human virtue.

• Role: Arrives at Camelot with a beheading game challenge; later revealed to be Lord Bertilak in disguise, transformed by Morgan le Fay’s magic.

Morgan le Fay

• Who she is: A sorceress, half-sister to King Arthur, and enemy of Camelot in many Arthurian stories.

• Role: The mastermind behind the Green Knight’s test. She uses magic to test the honor of Arthur’s knights and to frighten Guinevere.

• Symbolism: The supernatural and the power of women in medieval literature.

Bertilak de Hautdesert

• Who he is: The lord of the castle where Gawain stays on his journey.

• Secret: He is actually the Green Knight in disguise, transformed by Morgan le Fay’s magic.

• Role: Tests Gawain’s honesty through a “game of exchanges,” where they trade their daily winnings.

Pentangle

• What it is: A five-pointed star on Gawain’s shield.

• Symbolism: The five virtues of a perfect knight —

  1. Generosity

  2. Fellowship

  3. Purity

  4. Courtesy

  5. Compassion

• It also represents Gawain’s moral perfection and his faith in God and the Virgin Mary.

Virgin Mary

• Who she is: The mother of Jesus, often a symbol of purity and divine protection.

• Role: Her image is painted inside Gawain’s shield to remind him of faith and virtue.

• Symbolism: Spiritual strength and moral guidance during Gawain’s trials.

Deer, Boar, and Fox

These three animals are hunted by Bertilak and parallel Gawain’s moral tests:

1. Deer (Timidity): Gawain behaves politely and cautiously with the lady.

2. Boar (Strength and Resistance): The lady’s advances grow bolder; Gawain resists firmly.

3. Fox (Cunning): The lady tempts Gawain with the green girdle, which he accepts secretly—his moment of weakness.

Year and a Day Cycle

• Meaning: The time given between the beheading challenge and Gawain’s return to receive his own blow.

• Symbolism: A full cycle of time—growth, reflection, and fate.

• Represents: The natural order, moral reckoning, and the idea that all challenges come full circle.

Summary of Sir Gawain

• The Challenge at Camelot

  • During a New Year’s feast at King Arthur’s court, a giant Green Knight rides in holding an axe and challenges any knight to strike him with it—on the condition that he will return the blow in a year and a day.

  • Sir Gawain accepts the challenge, beheads the Green Knight—but the Knight picks up his own head and reminds Gawain to meet him at the Green Chapel in a year.

• The Journey

  • Gawain travels through dangerous wilderness to fulfill his oath. He carries the Pentangle shield, guided by faith in the Virgin Mary.

  • Eventually, he finds Lord Bertilak’s castle, where he stays before facing the Green Knight.

• The Tests at the Castle

  • Bertilak proposes a game: he will give Gawain whatever he wins from hunting, and Gawain must give Bertilak whatever he gains in the castle.

  • Each day, Bertilak’s wife tempts Gawain with kisses. Gawain courteously accepts her kisses but resists further temptation—except on the third day when he secretly keeps a green girdle that she claims will protect him from harm.

• The Green Chapel

  • Gawain meets the Green Knight, who swings his axe three times:

    • The first two times, he stops short.

    • The third time, he lightly cuts Gawain’s neck—punishment for keeping the girdle.

  • The Green Knight reveals himself as Bertilak, transformed by Morgan le Fay’s magic. The whole challenge was a test of Gawain’s virtue.

• Return to Camelot

  • Ashamed, Gawain wears the green girdle as a symbol of his human imperfection.

  • Arthur’s court forgives him and adopts the girdle as a token of humility and honor.
    

  • Themes
    Chivalry vs. Human Nature: Even the most virtuous knight can fail.

  • Temptation and Truth: Moral strength is tested through honesty and restraint.

  • Nature and the Supernatural: The Green Knight embodies both challenge and renewal.

  • Faith and Redemption: Gawain’s sin is forgiven through confession and humility.

Thomas a Becket

Archbishop of Canterbury, murdered in 1170; represents religious authority and martyrdom.

King Arthur

Legendary British king; appears in some tales referenced as chivalric figure.

Queen (Canterbury Tales)

Often associated with the King Arthur tales; sometimes directs quests or decisions.

Frame Narrative

A story that contains multiple stories within it. The Canterbury Tales uses pilgrims’ journey as a frame for their tales.

Exemplum

A moral tale or story used to illustrate a point, often used by the Pardoner or other storytellers.

Knight

Noble, chivalrous, experienced in battle; represents ideal medieval knight.

Prioress

Head nun; refined, sentimental, sometimes overly concerned with manners and appearances.

Monk

Religious figure who enjoys hunting and wealth; breaks strict monastic rules.

Friar

Traveling religious man; corrupt, takes money, engages in dishonest dealings.

Merchant

Trades goods; focused on wealth and status, sometimes in debt.

Clerk

Scholar; values learning and philosophy over money.

Sergeant of the Law

Lawyer; knowledgeable, careful, and often busy with legal matters.

Franklin

Wealthy landowner; enjoys hospitality and pleasure.

Haberdasher, Dyer, Weaver, Carpenter, Carpet Maker

Guildsmen; represent the emerging middle class and trade professions.

Shipman

Sailor; rough, experienced, sometimes ruthless.

Doctor of Physic

Learned physician; uses astrology and theory in practice; sometimes greedy.

Wife of Bath

Bold, experienced woman; multiple marriages; explores themes of female power and sexuality.

Parson

Good clergyman; truly virtuous and humble.

Plowman

Parson’s brother; honest, hardworking, charitable.

Miller

Boisterous, crude; steals grain; comic figure.

Manciple

Steward of a college or court; clever and frugal.

Reeve

Manager of an estate; cunning, sometimes vindictive.

Summoner

• Church officer who brings people to court; corrupt and lecherous

Pardoner

Sells indulgences; deceitful, manipulative, preaches for profit.

Harry Bailey

Host of the Tabard Inn; organizes the pilgrimage and storytelling competition.

Knight (in the tale)

Usually the protagonist of a story about chivalry or honor.

Crone

Old woman; often a wise or morally instructive character in tales like the Wife of Bath’s tale.

Summary of the Canterbury Tales

The Canterbury Tales is a frame narrative written by Geoffrey Chaucer in Middle English. It tells the story of a group of pilgrims traveling from London to Canterbury to visit the shrine of Thomas a Becket. To pass the time, they tell stories, each reflecting their personality, social class, or moral lesson.

• The frame: Pilgrims gather at the Tabard Inn; Harry Bailey proposes a storytelling contest.

• The stories vary: Some are romantic, some moral, some comic, some satirical.

Notable Tales:

• Knight’s Tale – A chivalric romance about honor, love, and rivalry between knights.

• Wife of Bath’s Tale – A story about a knight who must learn what women truly desire; introduces the crone who teaches him about loyalty and sovereignty in marriage.

• Pardoner’s Tale – An exemplum about greed; three men seek Death and all die due to their avarice.

• Nun’s Priest Tale – A fable about a rooster, Chanticleer; teaches lessons about pride and flattery.

Themes and Social Commentary:

• Social class and mobility (Guildsmen, merchants, nobility)

• Corruption and virtue in the Church (Monk, Friar, Pardoner vs. Parson)

• Morality and human folly (Miller, Summoner, Pardoner)

• Love, marriage, and gender roles (Wife of Bath)

Overall, The Canterbury Tales provides a snapshot of medieval English society, blending humor, moral lessons, and storytelling artistry.

Dante

The protagonist and author of the Divine Comedy. In Inferno, he is lost in a dark forest and guided through Hell by Virgil. Represents the human soul on a journey toward salvation.

Virgil

Ancient Roman poet, author of the Aeneid. Serves as Dante’s guide through Hell and Purgatory. Symbolizes human reason and wisdom.

Leopard

Often associated with lust and fraud.

Lion

Symbolizes pride and violence.

She-Wolf

Represents greed; she is the most terrifying of the three.

Beatrice

Dante’s idealized love, who resides in Heaven. She sends Virgil to guide Dante. Symbolizes divine love and spiritual enlightenment.

Sins of Incontinence

The first major category of sin in Dante’s Hell: sins of lack of self-control (lust, gluttony, greed, anger, etc.).

Minos

The judge of the damned at the entrance to the second circle. Determines which circle of Hell sinners go to by wrapping his tail around himself a certain number of times.

Paolo and Francesca

Lovers condemned to the circle of Lust for their adulterous affair. Their story exemplifies tragic consequences of uncontrolled desire.

Cerberus

The three-headed dog that guards the circle of Gluttony, punishing overindulgence.

Plutus

Demon of wealth and avarice, encountered in the circle of Greed.

Dis

The city of Hell in the lower circles (6–9). Includes the heretics’ tombs and the start of the more severe punishments.

The Fates

In classical mythology, they control destiny. Dante references them in allegorical terms, showing divine justice over human life.

Medusa

Gorgon whose gaze turns people to stone. Represents petrifying fear and despair; appears at the gates of Dis

Minotaur

Half-man, half-bull, guardian of the violent in the seventh circle. Symbolizes uncontrollable rage and brutality.

Centaur

In the seventh circle, centaurs patrol the river of blood, shooting arrows at violent sinners.

Capaneus

One of the seven deadly sinners of the seventh circle, punished for defying God with prideful arrogance.

Easter Morning

Important Christian reference; Dante’s journey begins at Easter, symbolizing rebirth and hope.

Four Humors

Ancient medical theory: personality and health are determined by bodily fluids.

1. Sanguine – Blood; optimistic, social.

2. Phlegmatic – Phlegm; calm, slow.

3. Melancholic – Black bile; sad, introspective.

4. Choleric – Yellow bile; angry, ambitious.

Black Death / Bubonic & Pneumonic Plague

Devastating pandemics in the 14th century that killed millions in Europe, shaped social, economic, and religious thought.

• Bubonic – Spread by fleas on rats; caused swollen lymph nodes.

• Pneumonic – Spread through the air; attacks lungs.

Feudalism

Medieval political system based on land and loyalty.

Manorialism

Economic system of self-sufficient estates (manors) under feudal lords.

Fief

Land granted by a lord to a vassal in exchange for service.

Vassal

Person who serves a lord in exchange for land.

Vassalage

The relationship between lord and vassal, involving military or service obligations.

Fealty

Oath of loyalty from vassal to lord.

Cycle Plays

Series of plays performed in sequence, often biblical stories.

Miracle Plays

Focus on saints’ lives and miraculous deeds.

Morality Plays

Allegorical plays teaching moral lessons, often personifying virtues and vices.

Summary of Dante’s Inferno

Dante begins lost in a dark forest, symbolizing spiritual confusion. The three beasts (leopard, lion, she-wolf) block his path, but he is rescued by Virgil, sent by Beatrice from Heaven.

Dante and Virgil descend into Hell, structured in nine circles, each punishing sinners in ways appropriate to their sins (contrapasso).

1. First Circle (Limbo) – Virtuous non-Christians and unbaptized souls; no torment, only separation from God.

2. Second Circle – Lust; sinners like Paolo and Francesca are swept endlessly by wind.

3. Third Circle – Gluttony; punished by mud and cold rain under Cerberus’s watch.

4. Fourth Circle – Greed; hoarders and spendthrifts clash, guarded by Plutus.

5. Fifth Circle – Wrath and sloth; souls in the River Styx, fighting or submerged.

6. Sixth Circle – Heresy; Dis contains fiery tombs of heretics.

7. Seventh Circle – Violence; three rings for violence against others, self, and God/nature.

   • Minotaur guards the violent, centaurs patrol the river of blood.

   • Sinners like Capaneus punished for defiance.

8. Eighth Circle (Malebolge) – Fraud; ten ditches of various deceitful crimes, including panderers, false counselors, corrupt politicians.

9. Ninth Circle – Treachery; frozen lake for traitors. Satan trapped at the center.

Along the way, Dante witnesses sin’s consequences and learns moral lessons. The journey begins on Easter morning, symbolizing hope. Dante sees famous sinners and classical figures, blending Christian theology and classical mythology.

Finally, after escaping Hell by climbing Satan, Dante and Virgil emerge on the surface of the Earth near the mountain of Purgatory, ready for the next stage of the spiritual journey.