AP Psych- Perspectives and Research Methods C 1+2

Unit 0

Psychology

Scientific study of behaviors and mental processes

Introspection

A research method where individuals use self-examination/ self-reflection

Unconscious Mind

The part of the mind that contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are not within immediate awareness but can influence behavior and emotions.

Sigmund Freud

A neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, known for his theory of the unconscious mind and the development of therapeutic techniques such as free association.

Nature vs. Nurture

A concept in psychology that explores the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to human development and behavior.

Psychoanalytic approach

a theory of personality and a therapeutic method founded by Sigmund Freud that explores how unconscious motives and childhood experiences shape human behavior

John Watson

psychologist who founded the school of behaviorism- he conducted the Little Albert Experiment

BF Skinner

a famous American psychologist who invented the "Skinner Box" with rats an pigeons to study how rewards and punishments shape actions (behaviorism)

Ivan Pavlov

physiologist who discovered classical conditioning through his famous experiments observing dogs salivating

Psychiatrist

medical doctor who specializes in the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders

The Hindsight Bias

the common tendency to believe that past events were predictable before they actually happened- “I knew it all along”

Overconfidence

When someone thinks they know more than they actually do

Critical thinking

Thinking that examines assumptions, appraises hidden values, uncovers biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

Theory

EXPLANATION for comparing key concepts and testable hypotheses that help psychologists understand and predict behavior

Hypothesis

Testable PREDICTION about the relationship between two or more variables. “If ___, then ___.”

Operational definition

Through this, we can test our hypothesis. Statement of the procedures used to define research variables.

Replication

Repeating to ensure accuracy

Case study

Technique where one person is studied in-depth

Survey

Technique of questioning a representative sample of people to find out: attitudes, opinions, or behaviors

Social-desirability bias

the tendency of people to give socially acceptable answers instead of telling the truth

Wording effect

Small shifts in words can change survey results/ decisions because people react to the emotional and cognitive context built by the vocabulary

Population

The actual people who are studied

Sample

a smaller group of participants chosen from a larger target group to take part in a research study

Random sample

Everyone has an equal chance to be studied

Single-blind procedure

Participants in an experiment do not know which study group they are in, but the study doctor/ experimenter does

Cross-sectional study

Acquiring comparable data of subgroups for the purpose of studying similarities and differences occurs in this type of study

Stratified sample

Subgroups or sub populations are studied independently

Naturalistic observation

Observe and report about animals or humans in their natural environments

Longitudinal study

Same exact group of people over a long period of time ranging from several years to decades. Researchers take repeated measurements of the same individuals to observe how their behaviors, traits, or developmental stages change as they grow.

Correlation

When one traits or behavior accompanies another

Correlational coefficent

Statistical measure of the relationship between two variables

Scatterplot

Graph composed of points that are generated by values of two variables.

Inferential statistics

mathematical tools used to analyze data from a small group (sample) so researchers can make educated guesses and draw conclusions about a larger group (population)

Positive correlation

a relationship where two variables move in the same direction—meaning as one variable increases, the other variable also increases, and as one decreases, the other decreases

Negative correlation

a relationship between two variables where an increase in one variable leads to a decrease in the other

No correlation

there is no relationship or connection between two different variables

Likert scales

Tool that measures attitudes, opinions, or behaviors by asking respondents to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with statements. Ex- strongly agree, etc

Experiments

Backbone of psychological research because through it we can try to find the cause and effect relationships. 1. manipulate 2. control

Experimental group

the set of participants or samples in a research study that receives the specific treatment, intervention, or manipulated variable being tested

Control group

Allows us to see if there is a relationship between two variables

Independent variable

The factor that is MANIPULATED. The EFFECT of this variable is the focus of a study.

Dependent variable

The factor you MEASURE to discover any changed that occur in response to an independent variable manipulations. Usually a behavior or mental process in psychology.

Confounding variable

Variables that the researcher failed to control, or eliminate, damaging the internal validity of an experiment.

Qualitative Research

a scientific method used to gather and analyze non-numerical data

Quantitative Research

a structured method for collecting and analyzing numerical data

Participant-relevant confounding

Any differences among participants that may skew results

Situation-relevant confouding

When situations the groups are placed in are not equivalent besides the independent variable

Experimenter bias

when a researcher's own expectations or desires unintentionally or intentionally skew the results, data, or participant behavior in a study

Participant bias

when people in a study change how they act or answer questions because they know they are being watched or want to please the researcher

Random assignment

an experimental technique where researchers use chance procedures to place study participants into different groups

Descriptive statistics

Listing and summarizing of data used in statistical research. Ex- graphs

Frequency distribution

summary of data that shows how often each different value or range of values occurs in a dataset

Central tendency

single summary value that describes the center or typical point of a data set

Measures of variability

describe how spread out or clustered a set of data points is around a central value like the mean

Range

Difference between highest and lowest scores in distribution

Standard deviation

Computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean

Meta-analysis

type of research that combines results of many experimental studies on same topic.

Z-score

Measures how many standard deviations a data point is ABOVE OR BELOW THE MEAN in a normal distribution. Positive score means above average.

Null hypothesis

Statement that a study will find no meaningful differences between the groups or conditions under investigation, such that there is no relationship among the variables of interest and that any variation in observed data is the result of chance or random processes.

T-test

Statistical test used to determine if there is a significant difference between the mean or average scores of two groups. It determines if the means are sufficiently different from each other to say that they belong to two distinct groups.

Sampling error

Natural difference between the results obtained from a sample data and draw conclusions about a larger population.

P-value

Key concept in the approach of Ronald Fisher, where he uses it to measure the weight of the data against a specific hypothesis, and as a guideline to ignore data that does not reach a specified significance level.

Statistical significance

Describes a mathematical measure of difference between groups. The difference is said to be statistically significant if it is greater than what might be expected to happen by chance alone.

Confederate

an actor or researcher's assistant who pretends to be a regular participant in a study but is secretly working with the scientist