Carina Notes

[RED] What regulation lists VFR required equipment, and what is the memory aid?

91.205 (FAR/AIM). Memory aid for ATOMATO FLAMES. MEMORIZE that it is 91.205.

[RED] INOP equipment: what regulation drives what you do next? What should you do next?

91.205. Determine if the inop item is required; if not required, placard AND deactivate, then annotate in the mx log.

What is a MEL and who has them?

Minimum Equipment List. Mostly just airlines. A MEL is assigned to a specific tail number and owner (not a type).

What is a KOEL?

Kinds of Operations Equipment List. Released by the manufacturer with the POH (not all manufacturers do). Recommends equipment for use cases. It is TYPE specific, not tail-number specific (e.g., the DA40 KOEL).

What is the TCDS?

Type Certificate Data Sheet. Documents the manufacturer conditions when the type certificate was issued (e.g., stabilator instead of elevator, these tires, these brakes). Big changes come via ADs.

What is an STC?

Supplemental Type Certificate. Issued by the FAA when a TCDS configuration is changed (e.g., new avionics). TCDS and STC items become "Supplements" in the POH.

Which three documents relate to airworthiness of equipment?

MEL, KOEL, and TCDS.

Airworthiness certificates: colors and types

Standard = white. Special = pink (experimental, LSA, etc.).

ARROW: what are the two "R" documents used for internationally?

Radio station license is for the airplane (international); FCC operator license is for the pilot (international).

[RED] ARROW "O" (Operating Limitations): what part matters?

You need POH Section 2 (Limitations). The Performance section is NOT required. In red: Section 2 Limitations is the only part the FAA looks at.

How do supplements fit into ARROW?

Think ARROWS: the S is Supplements (from STCs and TCDS changes).

What else should be included in the “O” of ARROW?

Placards can indicate operating limitations as well.

AV1ATE: what does the "A" stand for in this lesson's framing?

Use Annual for the A, and add ADs to your AV1ATE thinking.

Who releases ADs and are they mandatory?

The FAA releases Airworthiness Directives. They are mandatory.

What is a SAIB?

Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin. Suggestions only, not mandatory.

What are the three types of ADs?

1) Emergency (cannot fly), 2) One-time (comply within X hours or a timeframe), 3) Recurring.

What must a maintenance log entry include?

Mechanic or preventative maintenance person (pilot, owner), certificate number and type, plus signature. Highlighted: a signature is not implied, it must actually be there.

If something is broken (inop) on the aircraft, what two actions are BOTH needed?

Placard it INOP and [RED] deactivate it. Then annotate in the mx log.

[RED] What are examples of deactivating inop equipment?

Pull the circuit breaker (N44413 has two pulled breakers), unplug it, cover it, take the bulb out of the button, or remove it.

[RED+DAVE] Preventive maintenance: where is it defined and what should you SAY on the oral?

FAA Part 43, Appendix A. Say the words "preventive maintenance" and "Part 43 Appendix A" explicitly.

What is the weight threshold for updating W&B after preventive mx?

1 lb threshold to update weight and balance.

[RED] What is a Special Flight Permit and who issues it?

Allows a flight extension when maintenance/inspection has expired or an airworthiness issue exists (e.g., ferry flight). Issued by the FSDO (Flight Standards District Office).

One-time AD vs "time-based": related bulletin?

A one-time AD is not "time-based"; related advisory info comes as a Special Airworthiness Info Bulletin (SAIB).

What phrase should you use for securing inop equipment?

Say "Deactivate ."

[RED] Private pilot compensation limits

You cannot be paid (with slim exceptions). You may pay only your pro rata share of expenses. The pro rata share rule actually lives in 61.113, so verify before the oral.

Where must official aviation weather come from?

NOAA.

METAR basics

Usually only at airports. Released every hour, about 5 minutes before the hour.

AO1 vs AO2 in METAR remarks

AO2 = station equipped with a precipitation discriminator (reports precip TYPE). AO1 is older and cannot.

How often is a TAF issues and how long is it valid?

Issued every 6 hours. Valid about 24 hours (forecast period 24-30 hours, sometimes longer). Some airports get 30-hour TAFs, some 24.

Why does KSGU get a 24-hr TAF but KLAX a 30-hr TAF?

SGU serves closer/shorter flights, so 24 hrs. LAX serves longer flights, so 30 hrs.

What does P6SM mean in a TAF?

Plus 6 statute miles. A TAF only "sees" up to 6 SM of visibility, so anything better is P6SM.

How is rain shower intensity depicted on a weather prog chart?

Dot over a triangle = rain showers. One dot = light, two dots = moderate, three dots = heavy.

[RED] Thunderstorm chart symbol

The thunderstorm glyph (arrow-like symbol, drawn in red in notes). Know it on sight for chart symbology.

Unusual attitude recovery: NOSE UP

Power FULL, nose down, wings level. Power first because you must avoid the stall.

Unusual attitude recovery: NOSE DOWN

Power IDLE, wings level, then nose. Wings level first to reduce stall speed and get out of the turn. Starred: do NOT overspeed.

[RED] Engine-out emergency flow: A-B-C-D-E-F

A = Airspeed at 85. B = Best place to land. C = Checklist (memorized, flow right to left). D = Declare 7700 / 121.5, Mayday x3. E = ELT start. F = Flaps / Fuel (flow left to right).

SIGMET and Convective SIGMET valid times

SIGMET: 4 hours. Convective SIGMET: 2 hours.

When is a cumulus cloud in the MATURE stage?

When rain reaches the surface. Virga (rain that does not reach the surface) means it is still in the cumulus stage.

[RED] Unstable lapse rate rule of thumb from lesson

About 2 degrees C and 1 inch Hg (per notes) marks the stable lapse rate, anything more drives convection.

Three ingredients for a thunderstorm

1) Unstable lapse rate, 2) Moisture (these two make convection), 3) Initial lifting action (e.g., terrain).

What does rime ice look like and why?

Rime traps air, so it looks frosty white. Visual reference: think ice cubes.

[RED] What moisture condition is required for structural icing?

VISIBLE moisture (red star), with temperatures conducive to icing (notes: roughly +5 C and below outside).

Microburst characteristics

The downdraft is the key. Potential of 6,000 ft/min. Can last about 15 minutes.

How can you potentially predict you’re approaching a microburst?

Performance will quickly improve. Look for signs of wind shear, sudden temperature changes, or heavy rain, indicating strong downdrafts.

Where do you get graphical aviation weather?

Aviation Weather Center (aviationweather.gov).

AIRMET basics

Valid 6 hours. Does not impact bigger aircraft; SIGMETs are for everyone, AIRMETs matter for GA. Types: T = turbulence, Z = icing, S = obscuration.

What are the three types of SIGMETS?

Tango, Zulu, Sierra (T = turbulence, Z = icing, S = severe weather)

Center Weather Advisories

NOT a forecast. A report of actual current conditions. Only valid 1 hour.

[RED] Surface Analysis Chart vs PROG chart

Surface analysis shows current conditions; the PROG chart is the forecast version across a wide area.

"Towering Cumulus" naming rule

Part of thunderstorm naming; the cloud must cover more than 2 levels (but not reach the tropopause). It is about HEIGHT.

Cumulus and showers

Cumulus = showers. The two go together.

Occluded front: how do you tell warm vs cold occlusion?

An occlusion is when the cold front overtakes the warm front (the trailing front is faster). Compare the temperatures: e.g., air ahead at 85 F vs 95 F determines whether it is a cold occlusion or a warm occlusion (the temperature of the air the front runs into is what typed it in the drawing).

Orange dashed lines on a prog chart

TROUGH. The prog chart only shows troughs.

Isobars

Lines of equal pressure in millibars. Surface winds cross the isobars at an angle (notes: drawn perpendicular-ish to the isobar due to surface friction).

Frontogenesis vs frontolysis

Frontogenesis = a front generating/forming. Frontolysis = a front dissipating.

Dry line

The separation between moist air and dry air. Classic Tornado Alley feature.

What is a SPECI?

A special METAR issued off-schedule for significant changes.

PIREP: UA vs UUA

UA = routine PIREP (not urgent). UUA = urgent PIREP.

PIREP: /OV group

"Over" location, usually a VOR with radial and distance, e.g., MMM200020 = MMM VOR 200 radial at 20 nm.

PIREP: /TM, /FL, /TP groups

/TM = time (Z implied). /FL = flight level/altitude. /TP = aircraft type (e.g., E135 = Embraer 135).

PIREP: /TA, /IC, /RM groups

/TA = temperature (M = minus, Celsius implied, e.g., M14 = -14 C). /IC = icing (e.g., TRC-LGT RIME = trace to light rime). /RM = remarks, including how it was reported/who received it (e.g., AWC-WEB, or ZDV = Denver Center).

Winds and temps aloft: decoding 846142

First digit pair over 36 means subtract 50 and add 100 kts: 84-50 = 34 (340 degrees), 61+100 = 161 KNOTS, temp -42 C. Winds aloft speeds are always in KNOTS.

Six types of fog

Advection, Steam, Ice (unusual), Radiation, Upslope, Precipitation (along warm fronts; also called frontal fog).

What is “steam fog”?

Steam fog is a type of fog that occurs when cold air moves over warm water, causing water vapor to condense into visible droplets. This often happens over lakes or rivers, especially in autumn and winter.

The four types of hypoxia

Hypemic (blood cannot carry O2, e.g., CO in the lungs)

Stagnant (blood flow problem)

Histotoxic (cells cannot use O2, e.g., alcohol)

Hypoxic (not enough O2, altitude).

[RED+DAVE] Suspected CO / hypemic hypoxia in flight: decision and action

Dave's notes: TURN OFF THE HEAT. Decision point: self-heal (O2, vent, descend) or LAND.

Indications of hypoxia

Cyanosis: blueing of the extremities.

Hyperventilation: cause and fix

Too much O2 relative to CO2 (balance is off). Breathing into a bag helps force CO2 back toward balance. Self-ID: rapid breathing; the sensations are similar to hypoxia.

Spatial disorientation: ICEFLAGS

Inversion (abrupt forward movement sensation)

Coriolis (abrupt head movement illusion)

Elevator (feel a climb in an updraft when not climbing)

False horizon

Leans

Autokinesis

Graveyard spin/spiral

Somatogravic (acceleration feels like pitching up, deceleration feels like pitching down).

Runway/landing visual illusions

Black hole approach, bright lights, runway width, runway slope.

Motion sickness: cause

Sensory differential (mismatch). Vomiting happens because the body believes it has been poisoned. Also causes nausea and headaches.

[RED] Motion sickness: remedies from lesson

Pure alcohol scent for nausea (red star), slow flight, and smelling alcohol or minty/distracting flavors (lemon, etc.).

SCUBA diving wait times before flying

24 hours if a controlled ascent (decompression) was required or flying above 8,000 ft pressure altitude. Otherwise 12 hours.

Alcohol rules

8 hours bottle to throttle, BAC below 0.04, and not under ANY influence (including a hangover).

Medications and the FAA

The FAA medications list is different than MedXpress. Check the FAA list.

ADM, CRM, SRM

ADM = Aeronautical Decision Making.

CRM = Crew Resource Management.

SRM = Single-pilot Resource Management.

[RED] Boxed note: Apple + T-Mobile with satellites (emergency connectivity resources count as SRM tools).

The five hazardous attitudes and antidotes

1) Anti-authority: follow the rules

2) Impulsivity: take your time

3) Invulnerability: it couldn’t happen to me (assume vulnerability)

4) Macho: taking chances is foolish

5) Resignation ("nothing I can do"): I am not helpless.

[RED] N44413 engine summary

Lycoming O-360-A4A

360 cubic inch displacement

Horizontally opposed

4 cylinders

180 hp

2700 max RPM

air cooled (primary)

direct drive

carbureted

naturally aspirated

Decode "Lycoming O-360 A4A"

O = horizontally opposed. 360 = displacement in cubic inches. A4A = variant/type code.

Camshaft relationship to crankshaft

The camshaft is geared to and timed with the crankshaft; it controls (changes) valve timing.

Why 2 spark plugs per cylinder?

Even combustion (and redundancy from two independent magnetos).

Higher octane fuel does what?

Handles increased combustion temperature/pressure without detonation.

Diesel and jet fuel vs AVGAS

Diesel and jet fuel are kerosene based and oily.

AVGAS is not (evaporates dusty white per notes; it is dyed, 100LL blue).

[RED] What keeps the engine running if the electrical system fails?

The magnetos. Power path: magneto to spark plug. The engine keeps running WITHOUT aircraft electricity.

Magneto setup

2 magnetos, one lead to each cylinder per magneto. They are like mini-alternators, spun from the crankshaft through the camshaft gearing.

Impulse coupling (highlighted)

A spring attached to the magneto. It loads the spring to hold back mag rotation at low RPM, then releases the kinetic energy to spin the magneto faster than the starter alone, giving a hot start spark.

Fuel system flow (N44413)

Tank (filler neck/tab, tank vent) -> fuel selector valve -> gascolator/strainer (debris settles in the sump) -> electric fuel pump -> mechanical fuel pump -> fuel lines -> carburetor.

[RED+DAVE] Which fuel pump comes first in the flow?

The ELECTRIC fuel pump is first, then the mechanical pump. Dave note in red: "Elec first."

Carburetor operation

Throttle butterfly valve controls airflow speed through the venturi; mixture control meters fuel; the float works like a toilet float to hold fuel level; fuel is released like a controlled-release dam; carb heat feeds warm air from around the exhaust.

[RED+DAVE] Electrical system: where does the walkthrough start?

Dave note: start with the ALTERNATOR. Then voltage (flow) regulator, alternator amp gauge, circuit breakers/bus, then systems/instruments, then battery.

What does the battery actually store?

Only EXCESS energy from the alternator. Roughly 30 minutes of battery after alternator failure.

What runs on the electrical system?

Lights, electric fuel pump, avionics, and the turn coordinator (electric gyroscope). Note: the engine does NOT (magnetos).

[RED] N44413 electrical numbers

POH says 60 amps / 14 volts and a 12V battery.

[RED+DAVE] The five functions of oil

Lubricates, Cools, Cleans, Seals, Coats.

Oil system flow

Oil pan (with magnetic plug to catch metal) -> filter -> cooler -> pump -> cylinders and other engine pieces -> back to the pan.

Hydraulic systems on our airplane

Brakes, hydraulic ("oleo") struts, and the shimmy dampener (in the cowling on the nose gear).

Pitot-static: what does each source feed?

Pitot feeds ONLY the ASI. Static feeds the ASI, VSI, and altimeter.

How does the ASI work?

A diaphragm measures the pressure differential between pitot (ram) air and static air.

How does the VSI work?

A calibrated leak in the case. That leak is why there is a lag (about 5 seconds behind).

How does the altimeter work?

Sealed aneroid wafers expand/contract with static pressure, referenced to the Kollsman setting (29.92 standard).