NCSU Psychology 200 Exam 1 Review

Psychology

Systematic study of behaviour and experience. We study psychology in order to understand, explain, and predict behaviour.

Free Will vs. Determinism

Are there known causes of behaviour? Is all behaviour predictable?

Mind-Brain Problem

How does personal experience relate to the brain?

Nature vs. Nurture

How do differences in behaviour relate to environment and heredity?

Themes of Psychology

- "It depends"

- Good science depends on good measurements, need to evaluate the quality of the evidence

- Correlation does not indicate causation

Theories

Comprehensive explanation based on observation

Qualities of Good Theories

1. Falsifiable: precise, evidence can be used to confirm/contradict

2. Parsimonious: small number of underlying assumptions.

Qualities of Good Hypotheses

1. Falsifiable

2. Specific

Operational Definitions

- Specify how we will measure something

- Give a numerical value to something intangible

Population Samples

We generalize our findings from that small number of observations to the population

Convenience Sample

A group chosen because of its ease of study

Representative Sample

One that resembles the population

Random Sample

One in which every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Types of Research Design

Natural Observations, Case Histories, Surveys, Correlational Studies

Natural Observations

A careful examination of what happens under more or less natural conditions

Case Histories

A thorough description of a person, including abilities and disabilities, medical condition, life history, unusual experiences, and whatever else seems relevant. Focuses on a single individual.

Survey

Study of the prevalence of certain beliefs, attitudes, or behaviours based on people's responses to questions.

Correlational Studies

A measure of the relationship between two variables.

Descriptive Statistics

Mathematical summaries of results

Inferential Statistics

Statements about a large population based on inference from a small sample

Mode

Most frequent

Mean

The average

Median

The middle score

Range Variation

Distance from lowest value to highest value

Standard Variation

Exceptions from the average

P Value

Estimate of the probability that measured score would occur in the population. Probability that a relationship would occur by chance.

Biological Psychology

Study of links between biology and behaviour

Neurons

Cells that make up your nervous system

Number of Neurons in Nervous System

80-90 billion

Dendrites

Carry neural impulses to the cell body

Cell Body (Soma)

Contains nucleus of cells

Axon

Carry impulses away from cell body to other neurons

Mylien Sheath

Fatty insulation, speeds impulses

Terminal Buttons

Form junctions with other neurons

Action Potential

An excitation that travels along an axon at a constant strength, no matter how far it travels

Neurotransmitters

A chemical that activates receptors on other neurons (messages)

Synapse

The specialized junction between one neuron and another. Neurotransmitters cross the synapse and travel to other neurons.

Neurotransmitters Possible Outcomes

1. Re-uptake

2. Metabolized

3. Remain in Synapse

4. Signal Transmitted

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter associated with movement, emotion, and memory.

- Associated with schizophrenia, Parkinson's Disease, addiction

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter associated with mood, sleep, and arousal.

- Associated with depression

Acetylocholine

Neurotransmitter associated with arousal and learning.

- Associated with Alzheimer's disease

Endorphins

Neurotransmitter associated with plain and pleasure.

Neurotransmitters and Drugs

- Many drugs work by binding to synaptic receptors

- Drugs may mimic neurotransmitters or block re-uptake

Central Nervous System

The brain and the spinal cord

3 Structures of the Brain

Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain

Forebrain

Left and right hemisphere of the brain. Left brain controls right side of the body and vice versa

Forebrain: Corpus Callosum

Median of communication between left and right brain

White Matter

Axons of cortical neurons

Forebrain: Cerebral Cortex

The outer covering of the forebrain/grey matter

Forebrain: Hypothalamus

Regulates emotional and motivated behaviour

Forebrain: Amygdala

Emotional processing

Forebrain: Hippocampus

Vital for memory processing

Midbrain: Reticular Activating System (RAS)

- Regulates levels of arousal in brain

- Send motor messages back

- Visual Cortex (occipital lobe)

Hindbrain: Cerebellum

- Coordination and timing

- Shifting attention

- Discrimination between stimuli

Hindbrain: Medulla Oblongata and Pons

- Breathing and heart rate

- Relay sensory info from brain

- Relay motor messages

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Axons between spinal cord and rest of body.

2 Major Divisions of the PNS

1. Somatic

2. Autonomic

Somatic

Voluntary movements of skeletal movements

Autonomic

Involuntary movements of glands, muscles, organs (ex. heart, digestion, respiration)

2 Subdivisions of Autonomic

1. Sympathetic

2. Parasympathetic

Sympathetic

Arouses body; uses energy.

Activates for "fight or flight" response

Parasympathetic

Calms body: saves energy.

- "Rest and Digest"

Why are drugs addictive?

Dopamine affects nucleus accumbens.

- Central to attention & habit formation.

4 Types of Drugs

Stimulants, Depressants, Narcotics, Hallucinogens

Stimulants

Boost energy, heighten alertness, increase activity, pleasure

ex. cocaine, nicotine, caffeine, ritalin

Depressants

Decrease physiological arousal, relaxes body, impairs muscle coordination.

ex. alcohol, tranquillizers

Narcotics

Produce drowsiness, insensitivity to pain, and decreased responsiveness to stimuli

ex. opiates (morphine, heroin), marijuana

Hallucinogens

Induce sensory distractions, false sensory experiences

ex. LSD, Peyote, MDMA (ecstasy: low dose stimulant, high dose hallucinogen)

Sensation

Stimulation of a sensory organ that will produce action potentials which then travel to the brain for processing

Perception

Interpretation of sensation and nervous system response

Stimuli

Information from world around us

Receptors

specialized cells that convert stimuli

Light

A stream of massless particles called photons which form a wave

Pupil

Adjustable opening through which light enters the eye

Iris

Structured surrounding the pupil; dilates and constricts the pupil

Cornea

Rigid, transparent outer surface of the eye; directs light through the pupil

Lens

Flexible structure that varies in thickness enabling the eye to accommodate for multiple distances.

Vitreous Humor

Clear; jellylike substance at the back of the eye; light is directed through this part of the eye to the retina

Retina

Location of visual receptors

Visual Receptors: Cones

Adapted for colour vision, daytime vision, and detailed vision

Visual Receptors: Rods

Adapted for vision in dim light

Fovea

Area of greatest visual activity in human eye, concentration of cones

Visual Phototransduction

Light waves hit the retina and triggers a cascade of electrochemical reactions (action potentials)

Blind Spot

Retinal area where the optical nerve exits the brain

Rhodopsin

Photosensitive pigment found in the membrane like disks of the rods.

Optic Chiasm

Crossover point of optic tract from eye to brain

The McGurk Effect

Demonstrates hierarchy of perception in our senses.

* Vision is the superior sense

Dark Adaptation

Gradual adjustment to dark or dim lighting mediated by presence and regeneration of retinaldehydes in visual receptors.

- Cons adapt faster

- Rods slower but more sensitive

Tympanic Membrane

"Ear drum"

3 Vibrating Bones of the Ear

The hammer, anvil, and stirrup

Cochlea

Contains the receptors for hearing. Stirrup bone transmits vibrations to cochlea.

Conductive Hearing Loss

Involves the loss or malfunction of mechanical components of auditory organ (ex. bones that conduct sound)

Sensorimotor Hearing Loss/Nerve Deafness

Neurological in nature. Resulting from damage to the cochlea, hair cells, or auditory nerve.

Localization of Sounds

Sound distance is estimated from volume and pitch

Somatosensation (Touch)

Refers to the process that conveys information regarding the body surface and its interaction with the environment.

Processed in the somatosensory cortex of the brain

3 Types of Somatosensation

Mechanoreception, Thermosensation, Nociception

Mechanoreception

Skin pressure, vibration, movement, stretch

Thermosensation

Warmth, Cold

Nociception

Pain

Gustation

The use of chemoreception that allows humans to perceive ingested compounds