human relationships studies

Topics covered by Wedekind et al. (1995)

The formation of personal relationships, the biological approach to personal relationships, and research methods.

The aim of Wedekind et al. (1995)

To investigate the influence of MHC genes on females’ ratings of attractiveness of male sweat odor.

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MNC)

A group of genes that plays an important role in the immune system. Dissimilar MHC in parents produces a stronger immune system in the offspring. MHC information may be encoded by body odor.

The sampling method of Wedekind et al. (1995)

Purposive and volunteer sampling - 49 female and 45 male students (mean age 25) typed for their MHC.

The research method of Wedekind et al. (1995)

Quasi-experiment, double-blind experiment.

The procedure of Wedekind et al. (1995)

- Female participants were asked to report if they were
using oral contraceptives.
– The men were asked to wear a cotton T-shirt on a
Sunday and Monday night.
– The T-shirts were given to female participants who were
asked to rate the odor of six T-shirts each: three worn
by men with MHC dissimilar to their own, and three
worn by MHC-similar men.
– Each T-shirt was placed in a box and women sniffed the
contents through a hole in it.
– On a scale from 0 to 10, women scored the odor of
every T-shirt for intensity, pleasantness and sexiness.

The results of Wedekind et al. (1995)

- Women who did not take oral contraceptives rated the
odour of MHC-dissimilar men as more pleasant than that
of MHC-similar men.
– In women who were taking oral contraceptives this
tendency was reversed: body odour of MHC-similar men
was rated more pleasant than that of MHC-dissimilar
men.
– Ratings of intensity did not differ.
– Body odours of MHC-dissimilar men reminded women of
their own mates or ex-mates.

The conclusion of Wedekind et al. (1995)

Researchers concluded that MHC similarity may indeed
be a factor of sexual attraction.

Oral contraceptives imitate steroids that are naturally released during pregnancy. The authors explain this by saying that this may lead to the reversal of odour preferences so that women prefer relatives (probably because they help take care of the baby).

The strengths of Wedekind et al. (1995)

- The study clearly seems to support an evolutionary argument for mate selection in humans.

- Supports the theory of mate selection in humans.

- The study has been successfully replicated by Jacob et al (2002).

- The study being double-blind in nature reduces the possibility of demand characteristics arising.

- Meets ethical standards as consent was obtained from all participants and they were debriefed.

The weaknesses of Wedekind et al. (1995)

- Possibly reductionist; it over-simplifies the behaviour of human mate selection by bringing it down to the MHC – ignoring cognitive and socio-cultural factors
- The sample may not be representative or generalizable to the general population due to the sample being similar in age and culture.

Topics covered by Fisher et al. (2005)

The formation of personal relationships, biological approach to human relationships, and research methods.

The aim of Fisher et al. (2005)

To study of the neural mechanisms (specifically dopamine) of romantic love.

Dopamine

An excitatory neurotransmitter that is involved in our desire to get things done (motivation), in controlling the brain’s reward and pleasure centers and in regulating emotional responses.

The sampling method of Fisher et al. (2005)

Word of mouth and availability/volunteer sampling (via flyers) - 17 participants who were “intensely in love” with someone, mean age 21 and mean duration of being in love 7 months.

The research method of Fisher et al. (2005)

Laboratory experiment with a repeated measures design.
Variables were measured in fMRI scans.

The procedure of Fisher et al. (2005)

Participants were placed in a fMRI scanner and went through the following four steps, which were repeated six times:

– viewing a photograph of the person they love—30 seconds.
– filler activity—40 seconds.
– viewing a photograph of an emotionally neutral acquaintance—30 seconds.
– filler activity—20 seconds.

Brain responses to the picture of a loved one and to the picture of a neutral acquaintance were compared.

The results of Fisher et al. (2005)

There was a specific pattern of activation in the brain in response to the photographs of the loved ones. Activation was especially prominent in dopamine-rich brain areas.

The same brain mechanism active in substance abuse, that is, the mesolimbic dopamine reward pathway, is also active when individuals think about a romantic partner.

The conclusion of Fisher et al. (2005)

Dopaminergic activity plays a role in feelings of romantic love.

The strengths of Fisher et al. (2005)

- Cause-and-effect inferences can be made, as the study is a laboratory experiment.

- The method utilized in the study is replicable, increasing its reliability.

- As fMRI does not use radiation or harm the user, the study is ethically sound. Moreover, consent was collected, participants were debriefed, and identities remained confidential.

The weaknesses of Fisher et al. (2005)

- The artificial nature of the laboratory decreases ecological validity.

- The sample is culturally biased as it consisted of solely students at the University of New York, and is therefore generalizable only to a specific age group in the U.S. .

Topics covered by Gottman (1994)

The role of communication in personal relationships, explanations for why relationships change or end,

The aim of Gottman (1994)

To create and test models of causes of relationship dissolution as well as investigate what makes marriages last.

The sampling method of Gottman (1994)

Quota and self-selected sampling - 151 couples in long-term marriages. Couples differed in age (40-50 or 60-70) and marital satisfaction (satisfied or dissatisfied).

The research method of Gottman (1994)

Longitudinal unstructured
interviews and observations; correlational study.

The procedure of Gottman (1994)

- Couples were interviewed about their frequency of fights, types of conflicts, etc.

- Couples were observed in "love labs" before and after discussing common conflict areas in the relationship, where facial expressions, physiological responses (pulse, sweating), tone of voice, what was said was recorded. The time spent in positive and negative interaction was measured.

The results of Gottman (1994)

Three styles of problem solving were found in healthy marriages:

- Validating: Couples communicate and compromise to calmly work out their problem to mutual satisfaction
- Volatile: Recurrent conflicts with passionate disputes, tend to view each other as equal, individuality is important, passionate and exciting marriages
- Conflict avoiding: Agreeing to disagree, no confrontation

The ratio of positive interactions to negative interactions must be 5:1 (e.g. for every insult, 5 compliments must be given). The marriage was likely to be stable if this ration was maintained.

Ways of communicating, including the 4 horsemen of the relationship apocalypse, often predicted relationship breakdown.

The conclusion of Gottman (1994)

The conflict style between couples contributes to the changing or ending of relationships.

This prompted Gottman's theory of the four horsemen of the relationship apocalypse - criticism, contempt, defensiveness, stonewalling.

The strengths of Gottman (1994)

- Unstructured/open-ended interviews have increased validity because it gives the interviewer the opportunity to probe for a deeper understanding.

- The study was ethical; informed consent was included, no deception was involved, participants were not harmed, and their identities remained confidential.

- The findings can be applied to couples therapy, thus enabling counselors/psychologists to develop new and improved methods for promoting healthy relationships.

The weaknesses of Gottman (1994)

- A cause-and-effect inference cannot be established.

- The possibility of the bias of social desirability in the interview, leading to lower external validity.

- The study only investigated heterosexual couples, thus imposing a sense of bias and lower external validity because it cannot be ensured that the conclusions apply to all couples.

- The study is culturally biased as the sample consists only of couples in the U.S., decreasing generalizability to other cultures.

Topics covered by Bradbury and Fincham (1993)

The role of communication in relationships, why relationships fall apart, and ethics.

The aim of Bradbury and Fincham (1993)

To study the communication styles of couples and the attributions or explanations that spouses make for marital events.

The sampling method of Bradbury and Fincham (1993)

Quota sampling through advertisements - 47 married couples that had never been to marriage counseling participated, with the average length of marriage being 8.5 years.

The research method of Bradbury and Fincham (1993)

A correlative study utilizing surveys/questionnaires and observation.

The procedure of Bradbury and Fincham (1993)

Prior to the observation, the couple was asked to individually fill in a questionnaire to determine what the greatest problems were in the marriage. The researchers chose a common problem from the questionnaires and then asked each participant questions about the cause of the problem and who was responsible for the problem. They were also each asked about a problem that was identified in their questionnaire which their spouse did not identify as a problem.

After the individual session, they were brought together and instructed to discuss a possible solution to the problem that they had both identified. The observation took place in a laboratory setting. The observation was discontinued after 15 minutes had elapsed. The observation was videoed.

Two trained researchers independently coded the videotape to identify relationship enhancing and distress maintaining patterns of communication.

The results of Bradbury and Fincham (1993)

- Couples that reported lower levels of marital satisfaction had more frequent distress maintaining patterns of communication – in other words, they were more likely to attribute marital problems to the partner and have a greater tendency toward seeing the partner as behaving intentionally and with selfish motivation.

- The interaction between such couples was rated as more hostile and rejecting of the positive approaches of the partner.

The conclusion of Bradbury and Fincham (1993)

Dispositional attributions for negative behavior are linked to negative behavior toward the spouse (therefore, negative attributions affect marital satisfaction).

The strengths of Bradbury and Fincham (1993)

- The researchers used researcher triangulation in the coding of the observation, increasing the reliability of the data.

- Using multiple measurements to measure the variables limits the impact of confounding or extraneous variables.

- The study was ethically sound as informed consent was given, no deception, participant identities remained confidential, they could withdraw, they were debriefed, and they were protected from mental and physical harm.

The weaknesses of Bradbury and Fincham (1993)

- As the results are only correlational, there is the problem of bidirectional ambiguity. It cannot be concluded whether distress-maintaining communication is the cause or the result of marital dissatisfaction.

- Administration of the questionnaire before the interaction may have interfered with the behaviour in the observation. The study was not counterbalanced to prevent order effects and subsequent demand characteristics.

- The study used a cross-sectional design, so it is not possible to observe change over time.

- The sample is culturally biased.

The formation of personal relationships, cognitive approach to human relationships, and research methods.

The aim of Hazan and Shaver (1987)

To determine if there was a correlational between one's attachment style and their satisfaction in romantic relationships.

The sampling method of Hazan and Shaver (1987)

Convenience and self-selected sampling - a questionnaire called the “love quiz” was published in a local newspaper.
There were 205 were males and 415 females (with a mean age of 36), ninety-one percent of which were "primarily heterosexual".

The research method of Hazan and Shaver (1987)

Questionnaire, correlative study.

The procedure of Hazan and Shaver (1987)

The questionnaire was divided into three parts.

- The first contained 56 statements concerning the participant's most important relationship - for example, "I considered/consider X one of my best friends." The participants responded to a Likert scale by circling SD, D, A, or SA to indicate points along a strongly disagree to strongly agree continuum.

- Part 2 of the questionnaire asked specific questions about the nature of the relationship. The final section of the questionnaire included questions about the participant's childhood relationships with his or her mother and father and the parents' relationship with each other.

The participants were asked to focus on one romantic relationship, past or present, that they thought was the most important in their life.

The results of Hazan and Shaver (1987)

- 56% of the respondents demonstrated what would be considered a secure attachment style, 25 % showed an avoidant style and 19% showed an ambivalent style.

- The best predictor of adult attachment type was the participants' perceptions of the quality of their relationship with each parent and the parents' relationship with each other.

- People who were securely attached said their parents had been readily available, attentive, and responsive. People who were avoidant said their parents were unresponsive, rejecting, and inattentive. People who were ambivalent said their parents were anxious, only sometimes responsive, and generally out of step with their needs.

The conclusion of Hazan and Shaver (1987)

The prevalence (proportion of the general population) of the three attachment styles was the same in adulthood as in childhood. In addition, the results supported the concept that the internal working model has a lifelong effect.

Although the researchers found there was some correlation between childhood attachment style and the quality of one's adult romantic relationships, they warned about drawing too many conclusions about the continuity between early childhood experience and adult relationships. It would be overly deterministic to say that insecurely attached children would also end up in insecure adult relationship patterns.

The strengths of Hazan and Shaver (1987)

- Although there was a larger number of women in the sample, both men and women participated in the study, therefore gender bias is limited.

- Questionnaires are reliant on self-reported data. As the questionnaires were anonymous, this served as a control for the social desirability effect.

- A follow-up study was conducted with stronger and more efficient methodology among university students. This increases the credibility of the sample.

The weaknesses of Hazan and Shaver (1987)

- There are biases associated with self-reported data; it would be useful to assess both partners in a relationship to triangulate data and get beyond self-report.

- The use of a Likert scale could compromise construct validity. Participants may have different interpretations of the questions and/or the scale itself.

- The study is correlational and cannot determine a cause-and-effect relationship.

Topics covered by Dion et al. (1972)

A cognitive approach to human relationships, research methods.

The aim of Dion et al. (1972)

To investigate the role of the halo effect in choosing a partner.

The sampling method of Dion et al. (1972)

Volunteer and convenience sampling; 30 male and 30 female university students from an American university.

The research method of Dion et al. (1972)

Correlative study, independent measures (random allocation into two conditions)

The procedure of Dion et al. (1972)

The participants were told that the researchers were carrying out a study of "accuracy in people perception."

Each participant was given three envelopes. One contained a photo of someone their age that was physically attractive, one that was of moderate attraction, and one that could be considered unattractive.

Half of the participants were given photos of the same gender and the other half was given the opposite gender. To determine the level of attractiveness, 100 students from the university were asked to rate the attractiveness of 50 yearbook photos of people of the opposite sex. 12 different sets of photos were used for the study. The set of photos, the gender received and the order in which they were to be opened were all randomly allocated.

Participants were asked to rate the person in the photo on 27 personality traits on a 6-point scale. After completing this task for all three photos, they were then asked to complete another survey in which they were asked which person would be the most likely (and least likely) to experience marital happiness, parental happiness, and overall happiness. The final task was to indicate which of the three people would be most likely to engage in 30 different occupations. The occupations were divided into "low status," "average status" and "high status."

The results of Dion et al. (1972)

It was found that the people considered attractive were predicted to be happier, more successful, and possess more positive personality traits. However, this was not true in the case of parenting, where they were predicted to be relatively worse parents.

The conclusion of Dion et al. (1972)

The 'halo effect' was supported as it was found that people considered conventionally attractive are associated with more positive traits than their less attractive counterparts.

The strengths of Dion et al. (1972)

- The researchers took measures to support the construct validity of "attractiveness" by having a sample of 100 students from the sample university population rank photos for attractiveness.

- Although the use of deception is ethically problematic, it helped to avoid demand characteristics.

- There have been practical applications of the findings. Efran (1974) found subjects were more lenient when sentencing attractive individuals than unattractive ones, even though exactly the same crime was committed.

The weaknesses of Dion et al. (1972)

- The researchers used deception to carry out the study, which is ethically problematic. In debriefings, the participants indicated that they did not know the actual aim of the study.

- The study may be seen as rather reductionist. Researchers have found that the emotional state of the person making the judgment may influence the influence of the halo effect.

- Replications of the study have not been consistent, challenging the reliability of the findings.

- The study's ecological validity is questionable. When it comes to predicting how we would judge someone we meet online or when reading through job applicants' resumés, the study could be said to have high ecological validity. However, it is questionable how predictive the results are of real-life encounters between people.