APES Unit 4 - Needs 4.6 Added

Core

The very dense center of the Earth;

• Made of nickel, iron, and radioactive materials (generate the heat)

Mantle

The layer of thick magma surrounding and heated by the core

Asthenosphere

The solid but flexible outer layer of the mantle; under the lithosphere

Lithosphere

The thin + brittle layer of rock floating on the mantle aka the Tectonic Plates

Crust 

Outer layer of the lithosphere; earth’s surface 

Divergent Boundary

When two plates move away from each other

• Magma and convection push apart plates

• Forms volcanoes, mid-ocean ridges, seafloor spreading, and rift valleys

Convergent Boundary

Plates are moving towards each other

• Causes subduction (one plate going under the other)

• Forms mountains, island arcs, earthquakes, and volcanoes

Transform Boundary

Plates slide past eachother

• If they get stuck and then release, it releases a lot of energy resulting in earthquakes.

Convection

Convection is the process of heat transfer through the movement of fluids (liquids or gases) caused by temperature and density differences, where warmer, less dense fluids rise and cooler, denser fluids sink, creating a circulation pattern.

Subduction

When a tectonic plates slides under another one and melts back into the mantle

Transform Fault 

A type of tectonic plate boundary where two plates slide horizontally past each other, resulting in significant earthquake activity and no creation or destruction of crust

Geological Hotspot

An area on Earth over a mantle plume or an area under the rocky outer layer of Earth, called the crust, where magma is hotter than surrounding magma. The magma plume causes melting and thinning of the rocky crust and widespread volcanic activity

Soil

A mix of geological and organic components including:

• Sand, silt, and clay

• Nutrients: Ammonium, phosphate, nitrates

• Water and air

• Living organisms

• Humus

Humus

Broken down biomass

What role does oil play for plants?

Anchors roots and provides water and nutrients

What role does soil play in water?

Filters water by trapping pollutants before they can enter the ground water or the aquifer

What role does soil play in habitat?

Provides habitat for earthworms, fungi, bacteria, moles, slugs, etc

Weathering

the physical, chemical, or biological processes that break down rocks and minerals on the Earth's surface

Erosion

Movement of weathered material

How does soil form from below?

Weathering of parent material to produce smaller geologic fragments

How does soil form from above?

Breakdown of organic material adds nutrients; erosion deposits material from other areas; weathering

Biological Weathering

The process where living organisms, including plants, animals, and microorganisms, physically break down rocks and minerals, or chemically alter them

Chemical Weathering

The breakdown of rocks and minerals through chemical reactions with water, air, and biological organisms, which alters their composition and releases nutrients and soluble compounds into the soil, influencing nutrient cycling and soil formation

O-Horizon

Layer of organic matter on top of the soil

A-Horizon

The topsoil; mostly humus and minerals; Grade A soil with the most biological activity

B-Horizon

The subsoil; lighter layer below the topsoil; minerals but little to no organic matter

C-Horizon

Least weathered soil; basically the parent material; aka bedrock

Parent Material

The unconsolidated mineral or organic material from which a soil develops, serving as its geological foundation.

E-Horizon

a soil layer characterized by the loss of minerals, clay, and organic matter through a process called eluviation, leaving a concentration of sand and silt particles.

Sand

Largest particle size soil; highest permeability and porosity

Silt

Medium size particle of soil

Clay

Smallest particle size of soil

Porosity

The percentage of space that is not occupied by solid material but is filled with air, water, or other fluids

Permeability

The ability of a porous material, like soil or rock, to allow fluids (water, air) to pass through it

Loam

a type of soil rich in nutrients and considered ideal for plant growth; 40% sand, 40% silt, and 20% clay

Soil Texture

The ratio of sand, silt, and clay in a soil

Percent of Atmosphere that is Nitrogen

78%

Percent of Atmosphere that is Oxygen

21%

Exosphere

The outermost layer of a planet's atmosphere where it gradually thins into space

Thermosphere

The atmospheric layer above the mesosphere, extending from about 85 to 600 kilometers (53 to 375 miles) in altitude. It is characterized by extremely high temperatures, often exceeding 2,500°C (4,500°F), due to the absorption of high-energy solar radiation.

Mesosphere

the middle layer of Earth's atmosphere, located above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. This layer is crucial because it is where most meteors burn up, acting as a protective shield for the Earth's surface

Stratosphere

the atmospheric layer above the troposphere that contains the ozone layer, which absorbs most of the Sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation

Ozone Layer

Absorbs most of the Sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation; part of the stratosphere

Troposphere

The layer of the atmosphere where weather takes place; gets colder as altitude increases, most dense layer of the atmosphere

Coriolis Effect

The apparent deflection of a moving object, such as air or water, due to the Earth's rotation, causing winds and ocean currents to curve rather than move in a straight line

Hadley Cell

A large-scale atmospheric circulation pattern that occurs in tropical regions, characterized by rising warm air near the equator and descending cooler air around 30 degrees latitude

Ferrel Cell

A mid-latitude atmospheric circulation pattern, located between the Hadley cells and polar cells, that features surface air moving poleward and rising at higher latitudes

Polar Cell

A large-scale atmospheric convection current located in the polar regions, extending from about 60 degrees latitude to the poles

Westerlies

The prevailing winds in the middle latitudes (between approximately 30° and 60° latitude) that blow from west to east

Trade Winds

East-to-west blowing winds near the equator, primarily between 30° North and 30° South latitude.

Tropics

The region around the equator, characterized by consistently high temperatures and substantial rainfall, leading to high biodiversity and distinct biomes like tropical rainforests

Tropic of Cancer

23.5 degrees North; most direct point of solar radiation on June Solstice

Tropic of Capricorn

23.4 degrees south of the Equator, marking the southernmost point where the sun can be directly overhead at noon during the December solstice

Insolation

How directly rays strike the Earth; watts per meter squared

March Equinox

Signals the beginning of astronomical spring in the Northern Hemisphere and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere

September Equinox

Marks the beginning of fall in the Northern Hemisphere

Albedo

A measure of how much solar radiation (sunlight) is reflected by a surface, as opposed to being absorbed; higher percentage = more absorbant

Urban Heat Island

A phenomenon where urban areas are significantly warmer than their surrounding rural areas, caused by human-made surfaces like concrete and asphalt absorbing and retaining more heat than natural landscapes

Rainshadow Effect

A climatic phenomenon where a mountain range creates a dry region on its leeward (downwind) side because moist air loses its moisture as precipitation on the windward (upwind) side

Windward Side

The moist side of the mountain that the wind is blowing towards in the Rain Shadow Effect

Leeward Side

The arid side of mountain opposite of the side the wind is blowing into in the Rainshadow Effect.

Gyres

Large circular water currents that move clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counter clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere

Thermohaline Circulation

A global-scale deep ocean current system driven by differences in seawater temperature and salinity (density), transporting heat, nutrients, and other materials around the world

ENSO

El Niño Southern Oscillation

El Niño

A climate pattern in the Pacific Ocean characterized by abnormally warm ocean waters in the central and eastern Pacific; trade winds weaken or reverse, causing warm water to slosh eastward from the western Pacific, suppressing the upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich water and disrupting global weather patterns, leading to impacts like droughts in some regions of the west Pacific and increased rainfall in the east Pacific

La Niña

A climate pattern defined by the cooling of sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, an intensification of normal conditions where stronger trade winds push warm water westward and enhance upwelling of cold, deep water in the east; increased rainfall and flooding in areas like Indonesia and Australia, but can lead to drought in regions like the southwestern United States

ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone)

A band around the Earth near the equator where the Northern and Southern Hemisphere trade winds meet, leading to warm, moist air rising, heavy rainfall, and a shifting climate pattern.

Upwelling

The process where winds push surface water away from a coastline, causing deep, cold, and nutrient-rich water to rise to the surface, replacing the displaced water

Ring of Fire

a horseshoe-shaped zone around the Pacific Ocean Basin characterized by intense seismic and volcanic activity, driven by subducting tectonic plates at convergent boundaries