PSYO 321 - FINAL

components of emotions

- neural responses

- physiological

- cognitions/perception

- subjective feelings

- desire to act

differential (or discrete) emotions theory

- emotions are innate and discrete from one another from very early in life.

- each emotion packaged with specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions.

functional perspective

- View emotions as the result of attempts to adapt to specific contextual demands.

- The basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal.

- Emotions are discrete from one another and vary somewhat based on the social environment

emotional competence

the ability to control emotions and know when it is appropriate to express certain emotions

- detecting others emotions/awareness of one's emotional states.

primary emotions

present in humans and animals, appear within first 6 months.

- surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, disgust

social smiles

smiles that are directed at people. They first emerge as early as 6 to 7 weeks of age

seperation anxiety

the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs

anger

mixed with sadness first

social significance of emotions leads to _____________________

social competence

emotion regulation

a set of conscious/unconscious processes

- develops gradually over childhood (as a skill)

- paves the way for success in social interactions/academic settings

emotion-coaching parents

monitor their children's emotions, view their children's negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, assist them in labeling emotions, and coach them in how to deal effectively with emotions

- children are better able to self-soothe

emotion-dismissing parents

view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions

co-regulation:

the process by which a caregiver provides the needed comfort or distraction to help a child reduce his or her distress

temperament

- Constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation that demonstrate consistency across situations, as well as relative stability over time (Rothbart & Bates, 1998)

- Present from infancy

- Genetically based

- Culturally influenced

- Influenced by genes and environment

goodness of fit

- the match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with

- lack of fit = adjustment problems

attachment - freud

infants become attached to the person that provides oral satisfaction

attachment - harlow

contact comfort is crucial element in developing attachment

bowlby phases of attachment

1) Pre-attachment

2) Attachment in the making

3) Clear cut attachment

4) Goal-directed Partnership

securely attached babies

use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment

insecure avoidant babies

show insecurity by avoiding the caregiver

insecure resistant babies

cling to the caregiver, then resist the caregiver by fighting against the closeness

insecure disorganized babies

babies who show insecurity by being disorganized and disoriented, perhaps fearful

attachment considerations

- Parental stress, mental health, and the temperament of the infant are crucial factors.

- Attachment style of caregiver can predict the quality of a child's attachment to their caregiver.

securely attached children:

tend to show more happiness/less anxiety

- more openness and honesty

- better emotion regulation

developmental neuroscience and attachment

- hormones oxytocin and vasopressin and the neurotransmitter dopamine are important to the formation of the maternal-infant bond

- FATHERS TOO**

children are less socially competent when...

their parents dismiss their emotions/criticize them

mental health in childhood

- close relationships

- emotional development

- exploring the environment

as a continuum:

- impairments

- internalizing

- externalizing

THE SELF

...

self

all of the characteristics of a person

self-understanding:

The child's cognitive representation of self, the substance and content of the child's self-conceptions.

self-understanding: developmental changes

- A rudimentary form of self- recognition appears as early as 3 months.

- The mirror technique is one strategy for testing infants' visual self- recognition.

- With rouge on the nose, increased nose-touching means that the infant recognizes the self in the mirror.

- Signs of self-recognition appear at 15 to 18 months.

- Infants develop a conscious awareness of their bodies by their second year.

social cognition

- processes involved in understanding the world around us, especially how we think and reason about other people.

self-esteem

- the global evaluative dimension of the self; also called self- worth or self-image.

self-concept

- domain-specific self- evaluations.

- Children can make self- evaluations in many domains— academic, athletic, physical appearance, and so on.

key to healthy development

having a clear and consistent self-concept and self-esteem.

Susan Harter's (1985) self

- looks at general self-worth plus self-concept for scholastic competence, athletic competence, social acceptance, physical appearance, and behavioural conduct

self-perception profile for adolescents (1989)

- assesses global self-worth, the five domains tested for children, and three additional domains—close friendship, romantic appeal, and job competence

identity

- who a person is, representing a synthesis of integration of self-understanding.

- It is a self-portrait composed of many pieces.

- These are identities tied to such aspects as vocation/career, political beliefs, religion, relationship, achievement and intellect, sexuality, culture/ethnicity, interests, personality, and body image.

- We put these pieces together to form a sense of ourselves continuing through time in a social world.

identity: Erikson's view

- Adolescents go through the identity versus identity confusion developmental stage.

- The search for an identity is aided by a psychosocial moratorium: the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy.

- Adolescents who do not successfully resolve this crisis can suffer from identity confusion.

psychosocial moratorium:

Erikson's term for the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy that adolescents experience as part of their identity exploration

Marcia: changes in identity

- proposes four statuses of identity, based on crisis or commitment.

crisis:

- a period of identity development during which the individual explores alternatives.

commitment:

- a personal investment in identity.

identity diffusion

no crisis, no commitments

identity foreclosure

commitment, no crisis

identity moratorium

- in the midst of crisis, but commitments are absent or only vaguely defined.

identity achievement

- has undergone a crisis and has made a commitment.

developmental changes: adolescence

- Young adolescents are primarily in the identity statuses of diffusion, foreclosure, or moratorium.

- To move to identity achievement, they need:

- Confidence that they have parental support;

- An established sense of industry; and

- The ability to adopt a self-reflective stance toward the future.

developmental changes: emerging adulthood

- A consensus is developing that key changes in identity are most likely to take place in emerging adulthood, not adolescence.

- Increased complexity in reasoning, along with new experiences, may stimulate integration of identity dimensions.

- Many individuals who develop positive identities follow what are called "MAMA" cycles.

Moratorium to achievement to moratorium to achievement

individuality:

self-assertion and seperateness

connectedness:

mutuality and permeability

cultural and ethnic identity

- Identity formation is influenced by culture.

- Adolescents and emerging adults in the United States and Canada grow up in contexts that emphasize the individual.

- Elsewhere, individuals may be influenced by a collectivist emphasis on fitting in and connecting with others.

- Many who are part of the cultural majority are unlikely to view that status as part of their identity.

- For members of ethnic minorities, cultural dimensions are likely an important aspect of their identity.

ethnic identity

includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group and attitudes and feelings related to membership

bicultural identity

- identifying in some ways with one's ethnic group and in other ways with the majority culture.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT

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moral judgement

involves changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right/wrong.

intrapersonal dimension

- persons activities when he/she is not engaged in social interaction

interpersonal dimension

- pertains to social interactions, including cooperation and conflict.

piaget - moral

he believes young children 4 to 7yrs see their moral world through the eyes of justice and rules which are unchangeable. As they get older they understand rules are made by people. MAny variables to what is right and wrong. 10yrs old when children view each dilemma and consider the consequences before making moral decision.(cooperation)

moral thought: kohlberg's theory

- Proposed 3 levels of moral development.

- Development from one level to the next is fostered by opportunities to take the perspective of others and to experience conflict

- Interaction is a critical part of the social stimulation that challenges children to change their moral reasoning.

kohlberg dilemma

Facts: Husband considered breaking into pharmacy to steal drugs for dying wife

Issue: Ethics Case

preconventional reasoning

The lowest level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. The individual's moral reasoning is controlled primarily by external rewards and punishment.

conventional reasoning

The second, or intermediate, level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this level, individuals abide by certain standards but they are the standards of others such as parents or the laws of society.

postconventional reasoning

The highest level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this level, the individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then decides on a personal moral code.

Kohlberg's 3 levels and 6 stages of moral development

- Kohlberg's levels occur sequentially and are age-related.

- Before age 9, children use preconventional reasoning.

- By early adolescence, they reason in more conventional ways.

- By early adulthood, a small number of individuals reason in postconventional ways.

- The moral stages have been found to appear somewhat later than Kohlberg initially envisioned.

- Reasoning at the higher stages, especially 6, is rare.

Based on the individual's level of cognitive development

criticisms - carol gilligan

- The heart of morality in Kohlberg's theory is a justice perspective.

- A care perspective emphasizes connectedness with others, interpersonal communication, social relationships, and concern for others.

- Gilligan and her colleagues found that girls consistently interpret moral dilemmas in terms of human relationships.

moral competencies

what individuals are capable of doing, what they know, their skills, their awareness of moral rules and regulations, and their cognitive ability to construct behaviors

moral performance

actual behavior, determined by motivation and rewards and incentives

moral feeling

- According to Freud, guilt and the desire to avoid feeling guilty are the foundation of moral behaviour.

- Researchers have examined the extent to which children feel guilty when they misbehave.

- Young children are aware of right and wrong.

- They have the capacity to show empathy and prosocial behaviour toward others.

- They experience guilt, indicate discomfort following a transgression, and are sensitive to violating rules.

empathy

- reacting to another's feelings with an emotional response that is like the other's feelings.

- It is an emotional state but has a cognitive component—the ability of perspective-taking, discerning the inner psychological states of others.

- Changes in empathy take place in early infancy, at 1 to 2 years of age, in early childhood, and at 10 to 12.

moral identity

the aspect of personality that is present when individuals have moral notions and commitments that are central to their lives

moral character

involves having strong convictions, persisting, and overcoming distractions and obstacles

social cognitive domain theory

- Different domains of social knowledge and reasoning

- Social conventional reasoning focuses on conventional rules established by social consensus and convention.

- The rules themselves are arbitrary.

discipline

- Discipline techniques used by parents are significant.

- In love withdrawal, a parent withholds attention or love, such as refusing to talk to the child.

- In power assertion, a parent attempts to gain control over the child or the child's resources, such as with spanking or removing privileges.

In induction, a parent uses reasoning and explains how the child's actions are likely to affect other people

hidden curriculum

conveyed by the moral atmosphere that is part of every school.

character education

- a direct education approach that involves teaching students a basic "moral literacy."

cognitive moral education

- education based on the belief that students should learn to value things like democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops.

service learning

- a form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to the community.

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

obligation

by about 4 years of age, empathic awareness and adult encouragement produces a sense of obligation

development in prosocial behavior

- Perspective of others is required to sympathize or empathize.

- By 14 months, children are distressed when they see others in distress.

- Cooperation is evident at 14 months (fairness and sympathy)

- By 18-25 months, sharing is seen when see adult harmed by another

- By 2-4 years, certain prosocial behaviours increase

lying

- often considered an antisocial, if no immoral behavior.

- After 2 years of age, children become more inclined to lie about a transgression.

- Lying may be an early developmental milestone reflecting increasing cognitive development.

- There may be prosocial reasons to lie and can be viewed as a signal of social development.

conduct disorder

patterns of behavior in which the rights of others or basic social rules are violated

- about 5% show serious conduct problems

antisocial behavior: juvenile delinquency

- Males are more likely to engage in delinquency than are females.

- Theft, property damage, and physical aggression peak at 18 years.

- The peak for violence is 18 to 19 years of age for males and 19 to 21 years of age for females.

- Early-onset antisocial behaviour (before age 11) is associated with more negative developmental outcomes than late-onset (after age 11).

- Family support systems are also associated with increasing or decreasing levels of delinquency.

4 domains of moral development

- moral thought

- moral behavior

- moral feeling

- moral personality

GENDER

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gender

the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female

gender identity

the individual's sense of being male or female

gender roles

Expectations about what is appropriate behavior for each sex.

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

emerging gender identity

- likely emerges before 2 years of age

- Children aware of gender at an early age may be motivated to adhere to gender stereotypes by dressing in traditionally masculine and feminine ways.

- One study revealed that sex-typed toy play during the preschool years predicted sex-typed behaviours five years later.

- This was the case regardless of whether the children were being raised by lesbian, gay, or heterosexual parents.

biological influences

2 classes of hormones:

- Both occur in both females & males - different concentrations

- Estrogens: sex hormones that primarily influence female physical sex characteristics and help to regulate the menstrual cycle

- Androgens: sex hormones that promote development of male genitals/secondary sex characteristics

- One important androgen is testosterone

- Androgens: adrenal glands, in males - testes.

evolutionary psychology view

- Natural selection favored males who adopted short-term mating strategies

- In competition w/ other males, evolved dispositions that favor violence, competition, risk taking.

- Females favoured those who devoted effort to parenting & chose males who could provide offspring with resources and protection.

- Critics argue these hypotheses are backed by speculation, not evidence; pay little attention to cultural/individual variations.

social role theory

psychological gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men

social cognitive theory of gender

childrens gender development occurs through:

- Observation and imitation; and

- The rewards and punishments children experience for gender-appropriate and gender inappropriate behaviour

- Social cognitive theory emphasizes the importance of social contexts in gender development

parents

- Parents influence their children's and adolescents gender development by action/example

- Often use rewards/punishments

- Mothers and fathers often interact differently

- Mothers are more involved than fathers

- When they have sons, fathers spend more time in parenting- less likely to divorce.

peers

- "Girls acting like boys "is generally more accepted than the reverse

- Children show a clear preference for being with and liking same-sex peers.

- The preference for same-gender dyads is more pronounced for girls than for boys

- Certain patterns emerge as boys and girls spend more time with same-gender peers

peers - differences

- Boys activity level, rough and tumble play, sex-typed choices of toys and games increase; spend less time near adults.

- Girls activity level and aggression decrease, girl-type play and time spent near adults increases.

teachers & schools biased against boys

- Compliance, following rules, and being neat and orderly—which characterize girls more than boys—are valued and reinforced in many classrooms.

- A large majority of teachers are female, especially at the elementary level.

- Boys are more likely to be criticized by teachers.

- School personnel tend to ignore the fact that many boys are having academic problems, especially in the language arts.

- Boys' behaviour is more likely to be stereotyped as problematic