Adolescent Development Study Guide Exam #2

This set of flashcards covers key concepts in adolescent development, including peer relationships, self-conception, identity development, and the impact of education on adolescents.

Cliques

Small groups of close friends who share common interests and activities.

Dyads

Two-person relationships that are often the basis for deeper social connections. These relationships are characterized by intimacy, reciprocity, and mutual influence. Researchers commonly identify dyads by asking individuals to name their close friends (self-report), by observing their interactions, or through sociometric methods where students nominate peers.

Crowds

Larger, more diffuse social groupings that are based on reputation and stereotypes, rather than close interaction or friendship.

Major Features:

• Based on Reputation: Defined by the activities, attitudes, or characteristics that others in the school associate with them (e.g., 'Jocks,' 'Brains,' 'Goths').

• Not Interaction-Based: Members do not necessarily interact frequently or intimately; they may not even like each other.

• Serve as Social Reference Groups: Provide a sense of identity and define social niches within the larger school context.

Identification by Researchers:

Researchers typically identify crowds by asking adolescents to list the different peer groups in their school and to describe the characteristics of members of each group. This often involves:

• Ethnographic observation: Spending time in school settings.

• Self-report questionnaires: Asking students to identify crowds and their members.

Functions of Crowds:

1. Locate Adolescents within the Social Structure: Help peers understand who is with whom.

2. Channel Adolescents into Peer Contexts: Steer individuals toward specific social groups and activities.

3. Provide Contexts for Identity Exploration: Offer a loose collective identity that adolescents can try on.

Crowds in the United States vs. Europe:

• United States: Tends to have more numerous and hierarchically structured crowds, often associated with a wider range of activities (e.g., 'jocks,' 'brains,' 'populars,' 'loners,' 'burnouts').

• Europe: Generally features fewer and less differentiated crowds, often dichotomized into politically or ideologically defined groups (e.g., 'students' vs. 'punks' or 'skinheads') rather than activity-based ones.

Status Hierarchy of Adolescent Peer Crowds:

Adolescent crowds are often organized into a status hierarchy, with some crowds being more central or popular than others. This hierarchy is context-dependent and varies by school.

Factors Determining Crowd Status:

1. Proximity to Adult Institutions: Crowds that are seen as aligned with adult values and institutions (e.g., 'Brains,' 'Jocks') often hold higher status.

2. Perceived Social Control: Crowds that adhere to social norms and are less involved in risky behaviors may have higher status.

3. Physical Attractiveness, Athleticism, Parental Status: Traditional markers of social standing.

Relation to Brown's Dimensions of Peer and Adult Orientation:

According to Brown, crowds help define an adolescent's 'orientation' towards peers and adults:

• Peer Orientation: Some crowds are highly peer-oriented, valuing peer acceptance and activities above all else (e.g., 'Populars').

• Adult Orientation: Other crowds are more adult-oriented, aligning with adult values and institutions, often leading to higher academic achievement or involvement in school-sponsored activities (e.g., 'Brains,' 'Jocks').

  Individuals in different crowds find varying degrees of balance between these orientations, which shapes their development and experiences.

Iatrogenic effects

Negative outcomes that occur as a consequence of a treatment or intervention, particularly in the context of group sessions with antisocial adolescents.

Growth mindset

The belief that abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work.

Fixed mindset

The belief that abilities are static and cannot be changed or developed.

Tracking

The practice of grouping students based on their academic abilities, which can have both positive and negative effects.

Self-conception

An individual's perception of themselves, which evolves from childhood to adolescence.

Socialization vs. Selection

The debate over whether peer influences shape individual behaviors (socialization) or if individuals choose peers based on existing similarities (selection).

Erikson's identity development

Theoretical framework explaining how adolescents form their identities as they navigate various psychosocial challenges.

Marcia's identity status categories

Categories that describe different states of identity formation, including moratorium, foreclosure, diffusion, and achievement.

School climate

The overall atmosphere of a school, encompassing its practices, philosophies, and interactions among students and teachers.

Peer influence mechanisms

Ways through which peers can affect each other's thoughts and behaviors, including:

1. Modeling: Learning by observing and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, or coping strategies of peers.

2. Peer Pressure: Direct encouragement, persuasion, or coercion from peers to conform to their behaviors or attitudes, often to gain acceptance or avoid rejection.

3. Normative Regulation: Conforming to the perceived social norms or unwritten rules of a peer group, even without direct pressure, to fit in or maintain social standing.

4. Social Comparison: Evaluating one's own abilities, opinions, and behaviors by comparing them to those of peers, often leading to adjustments to align with others or to feel similar/different.

Educational disparities

Differences in academic performance and opportunities based on factors such as the type of school (public vs private).

Leisure activities

Engagements that adolescents partake in during their free time, which can significantly affect their social adjustment and development.

Adolescent employment

Part-time work undertaken by adolescents, which may have varying impacts on their academic performance and personal development.

Self-esteem factors

Variables that are crucial in predicting an individual’s self-worth and confidence, which can influence other aspects of behavior.

Ethnic identity

A sense of belonging to a particular ethnic group, which plays an important role in adolescent development.

Adolescent social media usage

The use of social media platforms by adolescents, impacting their social relationships and mental health positively or negatively.

Adolescent vs. child peer relationships

Adolescents' peer relationships differ from children's in several key ways, including:

1. More Time with Peers: Adolescents spend a greater proportion of their time with peers, and less with adults.

2. Less Adult Supervision: A larger share of adolescent peer interaction occurs without adult supervision.

3. Emergence of Cross-Sex Relationships: Adolescence marks the beginning of more frequent and significant cross-sex peer relationships.

4. Increased Intimacy and Loyalty: Friendships in adolescence are characterized by greater intimacy, loyalty, and mutual support compared to childhood friendships.

Changes in teaching practices from elementary to middle school and their impact on achievement

Moving from elementary to middle school often involves significant shifts in teacher attitudes and behaviors, as well as teaching practices. Teachers in middle school tend to be less nurturing and provide less individual attention compared to elementary school teachers, often focusing more on discipline and broad classroom management. Teaching practices shift from a more hands-on, project-based approach with one primary teacher to a more lecture-based, subject-specific model with multiple teachers. These changes can negatively impact adolescents’ achievement, leading to decreased engagement, a drop in academic performance, and lower self-esteem due to the less personal and more impersonal learning environment.

Teacher's expectations and student performance

Teacher's expectations significantly influence student performance through a phenomenon known as the Pygmalion effect or self-fulfilling prophecy. When teachers hold high expectations for a student, they often unconsciously provide more positive feedback, opportunities for involvement, and intellectual challenge, leading to improved student academic outcomes. Conversely, low expectations can lead to less support and fewer opportunities, potentially hindering student achievement.

What changes in academic and psychological factors occur during the transition to middle school?

During the transition from elementary to middle school, several notable changes often occur:

1. Standardized Test Scores: A plateau or slight decline in growth rate is sometimes observed.

2. Academic Performance (GPA): A general decline in GPA is common, often attributed to the more challenging curriculum, less individualized teacher attention, and a less supportive school environment.

3. Motivation: Intrinsic motivation tends to decrease, with students often becoming more extrinsically motivated (e.g., focused on grades) rather than mastery-oriented.

4. Self-Esteem: A drop in self-esteem is frequently observed, especially among girls, influenced by increased social comparison, body image concerns, and changes in the social hierarchy within a larger school setting.

How does school climate affect adolescents, and which parenting style is similar to an optimal classroom climate?

School climate, encompassing philosophy and practices, significantly affects adolescents by influencing their academic engagement, emotional well-being, and social development. A positive climate—characterized by supportive teachers, clear expectations, fair discipline, and opportunities for student voice—is associated with higher motivation, better academic performance, and reduced behavioral issues. Conversely, a negative climate can lead to disengagement and anxiety. The authoritative parenting style most closely resembles an optimal classroom climate, as both emphasize high expectations and clear boundaries combined with warmth, responsiveness, and encouragement of autonomy and dialogue.

How do Dweck's fixed and growth mindsets relate to adolescents' achievement?

According to Dweck, a fixed mindset is the belief that abilities are static and unchangeable. Adolescents with this mindset tend to avoid challenges and give up easily, fearing failure, which can hinder their achievement. In contrast, a growth mindset is the belief that abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work. Adolescents with a growth mindset embrace challenges, persist through setbacks, and see effort as a path to mastery, leading to higher academic and personal achievement.

Most supportive school grade configuration

The K-8 / 9-12 grade configuration is generally considered most supportive for child and adolescent learning. This model allows students to remain in the same school environment through their elementary and early adolescent years (Kindergarten through 8th grade) before transitioning to high school (9th-12th grade). It is most supportive because it:

1. Reduces Transitions: Minimizes the number of school changes during crucial developmental periods, especially avoiding the transition to a new school during the challenging early adolescent years (grades 6-8), which often coincides with significant physical, emotional, and social changes.

2. Fosters Stronger Relationships: Enables students to build longer-lasting and deeper relationships with teachers, who can better understand their individual needs and provide continuous support.

3. Provides Greater Stability: Offers a more stable and often more nurturing school climate, reducing the academic and psychological 'dip' (e.g., drop in GPA, self-esteem, motivation) often observed in students transitioning early to a middle school setting (e.g., 6-8).

4. Maintains Peer Group Cohesion: Helps to maintain a more consistent and supportive peer group, which can be beneficial for social-emotional development.