China 1950-1981: the People and the State

Chinese Civil War (1945-1949)

1945: End of WWII - Civil War resumes between GMD and CCP

1946-1948: CCP progresses by rural support and military successes

1949: GMD retreats to Taiwan, Mao proclaims the People's Republic of China

Why did China become communist in 1949?

Weakness of GMD: Corruption, poor leadership under Chiang Kai-shek, loss of public support

Strength of CCP: Strong leadership under Mao Zedong, effective guerrilla tactics, support from peasants

Impact of WWII: GMD exhausted fighting Japan whilst CCP grew stronger in rural areas

Soviet Support: USSR backed the CCP after Japan's defeat

Early aims of the CCP - totalitarianism

People were required to participate in organisations set up by the CCP, such as trade unions

The All-China Federation of Democratic Youth and the All-China Federation of Women were used to involve the masses in transforming society

Each year 800,000 new recruits joined the PLA and left indoctrinated after 3 years

Labour camps were set up and filled with 1.5 million prisoners. Around 27 million died in these during Mao's reign

Early aims of the CCP - suppression of counter-revolutionaries

The Suppression of Counter-Revolutionaries Campaign was launched in October 1950 to stamp out non-political offenses (murder, robbery, gambling, drug-use, prostitution)

In the Guangdong, 53,000 bandits and 90,000 other criminals were caught

28,000 suspected counter-revolutionaries were executed - executions were often carried out in public for maximum impact

Early aims of the CCP - reform the CCP

The Three Antis Campaign was launched in 1951, targeting party members and state officials

It focused on combatting corruption, waste, and inefficiency in the CCP

Early aims of the CCP - stamp out bribery and corruption

The Five Antis Campaign was launched in 1952, to eliminate bribery, tax evasion, theft of state property, cheating, and economic espionage

Used mass meetings were people were forced to confess or denounce others

Created fear and pressure leading to mass suicides (200,000-300,000)

Early aims of the CCP - reunited China under CCP control, Tibet

In October 1950, the PLA were sent into Tibet to assert the Chinese claim to the land

Tibetans regarded themselves as separate people, and there was great resistance to Chinese control

60,000 Tibetans fought to defend their land, but failed

Within 6 months, resistance was repressed and a regime of terror aimed at eradicating the Tibetan identity was enforced

Early aims of the CCP - reunite China under CCP control, Xinjiang

Xinjiang had a large Muslim population

CCP was worried that the region was either declare independence or be annexed by the USSR

By 1951, the CCP had authority over the area

Strict controls on religious worship were introduced to try to reduce their sense of local identity

Hundred Flowers Campaign (1956-1957)

'let a hundred flowers bloom, let a hundred schools of thought contend'

A period of debate and reflection on how China was being run

Mao suggested open debate would lead to better ways of running government, and show the superiority of communism over capitalism

At first, non-CCP members were encouraged to offer criticism, then intellectuals

It was stopped within a year

Why was the Hundred Flowers Campaign stopped?

People were reluctant to speak their mind, but when intellectuals were able to join, there was a lot of criticism about human rights, corruption, living standards, and even Mao himself

This was unexpected so Mao stopped the campaign

The Anti-Rightist Movement (1957-1959)

Everyone involved in the Hundred Flowers campaign was forced to withdraw their views

CCP was purged of members who had been too vocal

300,000-750,000 people were persecuted and sent to labour camps

Communist social policies - public health

Cities were cleaned up

Residents formed committees to tidy up the streets.

In Shanghai, each family had to produce one rat's tail a week as evidence

Healthcare became free

Emphasis was on prevention

Poppy fields were destroys and drug-dealers were shot to reduce opium addiction

Herbal remedies were discouraged

Communist social policies - religious practice

Religion was regarded as superstitious

Both Christians and Buddhists were attacked

Churches, temples, and shrines were destroyed

Ancestor worship was forbidden

Communist social policies - custom and tradition

Songs and dances at weddings/festivals were banned

They were replaced by political meetings and discussions organised by the CCP

Communist social policies - state control of business

Many businesses and banks came under state control

Companies got loans from the state bank, they were unable to if the government disapproved of what they were selling

Communist social policies - women

Women were encouraged to work

Foot-binding was banned

Marriage Reform Law - banned forced marriage, divorce was made easier, women had rights and custody of children was allowed

Communist social policies - young people and education

Party workers taught peasants to read and write whilst teaching them Maoist Communism

When going to the market, the had to pass 'literacy checkpoints'

Pinyin was introduced

Students were sent to the USSR to learn skills

Poorer students had access to higher education

1949: 200 higher education institutions --> 1961: 1,289

Agricultural policies - Agrarian Reform Law (1950)

What happened?:

Communist Party workers enforced land redistribution in the countryside

Land was taken from landlords with excess and given to landless peasants

'People’s Courts' tried landlords, often leading to executions. Set up by the CCP, run by the peasants

Impact:

By 1952, 60% of the population benefitted

750,000–1 million deaths

1 in 6 landlords had a family member killed

Won peasant support for the Communists, but food shortages remained

Agricultural policies - mutual aid teams (1951)

Peasants worked on each other's land, so each family's plot would become more effective

Lots of arguments about who's land should be worked on first

Agricultural policies - cooperatives (1953)

Land was jointly owned so one large crop could be grown efficiently

Resources could be pooled to buy equipment, fertilisers, and seeds

30-50 families on each farm

Many peasants did not want to give up private land they had fought for

By 1957, over 90.5% of China's peasants were in cooperatives

Industrial policies - problems before

Chinese currency unstable - Mao took over banks and stabilised the currency

Inflation - Mao ordered prices and wages to be fixed at a low rate. Within a year, inflation had ended

Many goods traded on the black market - Black marketers were punished severely

Railways destroyed during the war - Mao prioritised rebuilding railways so coal could be brought to Chinese industries. Within months, railway links to Shanghai were restored

Chiang Kai-Shek took most of China's financial reserves when he escaped to Taiwan - Mao increased taxes paid by businesses

Industrial policies - First Five Year Plan (1953)

Russian scientists and engineers supervised millions of Chinese workers on ~700 major projects. Thousands of Chinese students were sent for training in Soviet universities/colleges

Focus on heavy industries: coal, steel, chemicals. These raw materials would be used to build planes, trains, and engines to improve transport infrastructure

New factories were put in small towns to be near raw materials, but also so new industries could start from scratch without 'old ways' interfering with Mao's new ideas

Industrial policies - negatives of the First Five Year Plan

State control meant that workers could not move from one job to another

Living standards in the countryside remained poor

State planning was disorganised, led to delays in production, and quantity > quality

Most workers were illiterate, so modern machinery was ruined as they could not read instructions

Industrialisation was paid for by the USSR on loans, which had high interest rates

Industrial policies - Great Leap Forward (1958-1963)

Created communes, which abolished private land and property, all aspects of life were cared for

Built backyard furnaces to produce steel, they was an estimated 600,000 furnaces producing 11 million tonnes of steel

Propaganda was everywhere, speakers were put up in fields and broadcasted political speeches

New farming techniques were introduced, planting crops closer together and ploughing the soil deeper

The 'Four Noes', aiming to eradicate flies, mosquitoes, rats, and sparrows

Industrial policies - negatives of the Great Leap Forward

Communes meant there was a lack of incentive for working, so many did less work

Most steel produced in backyard furnaces was unusable

Targets of production were unrealistic

Farming techniques were unsuited to land apart from where it was tested, disastrous results

Droughts in the Three Years of Disaster (1958-1961) set back farming in communes

Eradication of sparrows meant the birds weren't alive to eat pests that ate the grain, so entire stocks were destroyed

The Great Leap Forward caused a famine, ~30 million people died of starvation

Dazhai commune - history of Dazhai before 1949

Before WW2, they suffered many droughts

People were so poor they had to sell their children

During WW2, it was occupied by Japan

The CCP had increased influence over this area, and took control after liberation to begin land reform. It had 200 people and 188 hectares of agricultural land, 60% of which was owned by the 4 richest families

Dazhai commune - experience of mutual aid teams

First mutual aid team was set up in 1946, 15 families joined

They worked in their own fields but helped each other in daily shifts in busy times

Dazhai commune - problems Dazhai faced

Agricultural land was spread across several slopes, difficult to protect against floods and irrigate

Chen Yonggui's (the leader) Ten-Year Reclamation Plan (1953-1962) built dams to enable land to be reclaimed and then terraced. Between 1953-1958 the people of Dazhai built 180 dams, 2 canals around the mountains, and 2 reservoirs

Dazhai commune - how work at Dazhai relates to Mao's communism

Work points were awarded on political attitudes as well as contribution

After floods in 1963, Chen's slogan was: "Ask for no shelter. Ask for no grain. Ask for no money", showing how Dazhai could be rebuilt by the people alone

"In agriculture, learn from Dazhai"

Why did Mao launch the Cultural Revolution?

To rid China of anti-Communist elements, he believed that 'representatives of the bourgeoisie' had snuck into the party, government, army, and other spheres of culture

China was 'taking the Capitalist road'

To attack the Four Olds (culture, ideas, habits, customs)

The USA had begun to interfere in Vietnam by 1966, he needed to reinspire the people so he could call upon them if necessary

The role of the Red Guard

Children denounced their own parents and teachers for being anti-Communist

Schools and colleges closed down

Jiang Qing organised Red Guard demonstrations in 1967-1968

They broke into homes, factories, offices, and local CCP offices

Anything anti-revolutionary, like books and art, were burnt or smashed

Why did Mao focus on the young in the Cultural Revolution?

To consolidate his support amongst them

They were too young to have trauma/memories of Mao's previous policies, like the Great Leap Forward, so they were easily indoctrinated

To gain long-term support

He gave them the freedom that they wanted

Impact of the Cultural Revolution on people - education

>1% of the working population had a uni degree

11% had received schooling after the age of 6

26% had received schooling between 12-16

35% had received schooling up to 12

125 million people under the age of 45 were illiterate

Impact of the Cultural Revolution on people - family

Children were told to regard Mao and the CCP as their true parents

They were taught to inform on their parents, destroying normal family life

Impact of the Cultural Revolution on people - economy

Industrial output was severely reduced, negatively impacting the economy

Cities were often in such chaos with violence and strikes that life came to a complete standstill

Impact of the Cultural Revolution on people - healthcare

After the closure of universities, there was a shortage of doctors

Barefoot doctors provided free treatment throughout the countryside, but they didn't fulfil the need for well-trained health professionals in a modern state

Impact of the Cultural Revolution on people - arts and intellectualism

China became a 'cultural desert'

Writers, intellectuals, and teachers were imprisoned and executed

Libraries and museums closed, and collections were destroyed

Jiang Qing commissioned opera-ballets that would be watched throughout China

Only culture that supported the cult of Mao was allowed

Impact of the Cultural Revolution on Tibet - religion

The Jokhang Temple in Lhasa was ransacked and turned into a pigsty

Monasteries were plundered and destroyed

By 1979, 600,000 monks were either dead or imprisoned

7 out of 6000 monasteries remained

Mani prayer stones were removed and became floors of public toilets and slaughterhouses

Monks and lamas were persecuted

Impact of the Cultural Revolution on Tibet - education

Almost all schools and universities were shut down

Impact of the Cultural Revolution on Tibet - Red Guards

Red Guard groups were formed through Tibet

They went to houses and demanded that religious artefacts be destroyed

Impact of the Cultural Revolution on Tibet - language

Grammatical 'reforms' were introduced to make the Tibetan language more similar to spoken Chinese, making it incomprehensible written down

The Tibetan term for China was banned as it implied that China was separate to Tibet

Impact of the Cultural Revolution on Tibet - freedom of expression

By the 1970s, any religious practice was banned

Hairstyles, clothing, and architecture that showed any culture were prohibited

What is propaganda?

Media with a political purpose

What is a cult of personality?

Propaganda focussing on the creation of a profile around a certain individual

Loyalty to an individual

Mao's Cult of Personality

Started as the Cultural Revolution took hold

Students became personally loyal to him and not the party

Lots of Mao's propaganda centred on the idea that the Chinese believed his word above everything else

What does Dazhai reveal about Communist policies? - agriculture

Farming policies suited the terrain

They survived the famine

Farmers were expected to work day and night all year round

What does Dazhai reveal about Communist policies? - Cultural Revolution

Dazhai became a pilgrimage-like destination. Between 1964-1971, around 4.5 million people visited

The Red Guards killed 141 people in Dazhai

People in Dazhai were forced to barter to exchange goods

What does Dazhai reveal about Communist policies? - community

They built a kindergarten, primary school, library, bookstore, post office, basketball court, and an auditorium

It was close to Mao's utopian idea of a model village

What does Dazhai reveal about Communist policies? - women

The Iron Girls Brigade - 23 women aged 13-16 who worked alongside men

They carried water, fertilisers, and deep ploughed

It was led by Guo Fenglian, who became the leader of Dazhai in 1973

What does Dazhai reveal about Communist policies? - propaganda

Loud speakers were installed to broadcast music and songs

Films were shown at night while farmers took a break

Peasants were re-educated in the fields

Many read the Little Red Book during meals

Who competed for power after Mao's death?

Hua Guofeng

Nominated by Mao as his successor

Premier until 1978

The Gang of Four

Led by Jiang Qing

Overestimated their support in the army

Unpopular in Beijing

Deng Xiaoping

Linked to the PLA

Reinstated to the Politburo

Became CCP General Secretary in April 1977

Why did Deng succeed Mao?

1976 - Hua succeeded Mao, taking all his positions

1976 - Hua arrested the Gang of Four, who were accused of planning a coup

Deng used his contacts in the CCP and the PLA to be reinstated into the Politburo

Deng increasingly isolated Hua

The Politburo dropped accusations that Deng had criticised the CCP

April 1977 - Deng became General Secretary of the CCP again

1978 - Hua was ousted from his position as Premier

The CCP confirmed Deng as the leader of China, and accepted his Four Modernisations

1980 - The Gang of Four were put on trial. They were ridiculed in the media and all found guilty.

The Democracy Wall

A way to voice opposition and protests

Students posted letters, posters, poems, and cartoons

They called for democracy, the rehabilitation of CR victims, attacked the government, and even Mao

Deng's reaction to the Democracy Wall

Supported it at first

Arrested the authors of the most critical posters as it got more critical

In 1978, Deng removed Mao's 'four great freedoms': to speak out freely, to air views fully, to hold great debates, and to write wall posters

In 1979, democratic journals shut down and over 50 editors imprisoned

Deng's Four Cardinal Principles

We must keep to the socialist road

We must uphold the dictatorship of the proletariat

We must uphold the leadership of the Communist Party

We must uphold Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong thought

Political improvements under Deng

In 1979, the Ministry of Justice was re-established

State courts were reopened

Law schools were promoted

Elections were allowed in counter-level congresses

Deng's economic reforms (1976-1981)

To move away from a centrally planned economy to one that allowed for the re-introduction of market forces and for the opening up of China for foreign trade

'Let some people get rich first'

Economic progress would improve the lives of people as wealth trickled down

Deng's Four Modernisations (1978)

To reform agriculture, industry, science and technology, and defence

Agricultural policies under Deng

Communes were abandoned

In 1981, the 'household responsibility system' was introduced

The 'household responsibility system'

Land was owned collectively

If peasants paid their taxes and contributed to local targets, they could sell the excess for profit

Peasants farmed the same land for generations

Farm output under Deng

Rose by 8-10% a year

Grain yields went from 2.5 tonnes/hectare in 1978 -> 3.5 tonnes/hectare in the mid-1980s

Industrial policies under Deng

SOEs remained with greater freedom

The 'Open Door Policy' built economic relations with the West

SEZs were set up near Hong Kong and Taiwan

State control was ended

Communist propaganda (1976-1981)

Discredited Deng's opponents

Reflected the Four Cardinal Principles

Promoted official Chinese policy

Censorship

Became increasingly tight from 1979

In 1980, the constitutional right to free speech was deleted

Social changes under Deng - education

In 1977, the NCEE was re-established

Thousands of students were sent to study abroad to learn Western methods to bring back to the SEZs

Social changes under Deng - women

The 'One-Child Policy'

Benefits were given to families with one child

Families with multiple children were fined

Female infanticide increased

Women with one child were fitted with IUDs

Women with two children were sterilised

Between Sep 1981-Dec 1982, 16.4 million women were sterilised

The marriage law (1980)

Minimum legal age for marriage was 22 for men, and 20 for women