Sociology Exam 2 Review

norms

rules of conduct that specify appropriate behavior in a given range of social situations. A norm either prescribes a given type of behavior or forbids it.

deviance

modes of action that do not conform to the norms or values held by most members of a group or society. What is regarded as deviant is as variable as the norms and values that distinguish different cultures and subcultures from one another.

deviant subculture

a subculture whose members hold values that differ substantially from those of the majority

sanction

a mode of reward or punishment that reinforces socially expected forms of behavior

laws

rules of behavior established by a political authority and backed by state power

crime

the result of any action that contravenes the laws established by a political authority

anomie

a concept first brought into wide usage in sociology by Emile Durkheim to refer to a situation in which social norms lose their hold over individual behavior

relative deprivation

deprivation one feels by comparing oneself with one group

differential association

an interpretation of the development of criminal behavior proposed by Edwin H. Sutherland, according to whom criminal behavior is learned through association with others who regularly engage in crime

labeling theory

an approach to the study of deviance that suggests that people become “deviant” because certain labels are attached to their behavior by political authorities and others.

primary deviation

according to Edwin Lemert, the actions that cause others to label one as a deviant

secondary deviation

the act of primary deviation, secondary deviation occurs when an individual accepts the label of deviant and acts accordingly.

conflict theory

the argument that deviance is deliberately chosen and often political in nature

control theory

the theory that crime is the outcome of an imbalance between impulses toward criminal activity and controls that deter it.

white-collar crime

criminal activities carried out by those in white-collars, or professional, jobs

corporate crime

offenses committed by large corporations in society. Examples of corporate crime include pollution, false advertising, and violations of health and safety regulations

cybercrime

criminal activities by means of electronic networks or information technologies. electronic money laundering, personal identity theft, electronic vandalism, and monitoring electronic correspondence are all emergent forms of cybercrime

community policing

an approach to policing emphasizes crime prevention rather than law enforcement to reintegrate policing within the community

shaming

a way of punishing criminal and deviant behavior based on rituals of public disapproval rather than incarceration.

social stratification

the existence of structured inequalities between groups in society in terms of their access to material or symbolic rewards

intersectionality

a sociological perspective that holds that our multiple group memberships affect our lives in ways that are distinct from single group memberships. For example, the experience of a Black woman may be distinct from that of a White woman or a Black man.

structured inequalities

social inequalities that result from patterns in the social structure

class system

a system of social hierarchy that allows individuals to move among classes. The chief bases of class are income, ownership of wealth, education, occupation, and lifestyle.

class

although it is one of the most frequently used concepts in sociology, there is no clear agreement about how the notion of class should be defined.

social capital

the relational networks that provide a person with tangible resources and intangible ones

cultural capital

the accumulated cultural knowledge within a society that confers power and status

means of production

the means whereby the production of material goods is carried on in a society, including not just technology by also the social relations between producers

pariah groups

groups who suffer from negative status discrimination - they are looked down on by most other members of society

upper class

a social class broadly composed of the more affluent members of society, especially those who have inherited wealth, own businesses, or hold large numbers of stocks

middle class

a social class composed broadly of those working in white-collar and lower managerial occupations

working class

a social class broadly composed of people working in blue-collar, or manual, occupations

lower class

a social class comprising those who work part-time or not al all and whose household income is typically lower than 31,000 a year

social mobility

movement of individuals or groups between social positions

intergenerational mobility

movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy from one generation to another

intragenerational mobility

movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy within the course of a personal career

structural mobility

mobility resulting from changes in the number and kinds of jobs available in a society

exchange mobility

the exchange of positions on the socioeconomic scale such that talented people move up the economic hierarchy while the less talented move down.

poverty line

an official government measure to define those living in poverty in the United States

gender binary

the classification of sex and gender into two discrete, opposite, and nonoverlapping forms of masculine and feminine

gender nonconforming

identifying as a gender other than male or female, or not identifying with a particular gender at all.

transgender

identifying as or expressing a gender identity that differs from a person’s sex at birth

intersectionality

a sociological perspective that holds our multiple group memberships affect our lives in ways that are distinct from single group memberships.

sex

the biological and anatomical differences distinguishing females and males.

gender

social expectations about behavior regarded as appropriate for the members of each sex

intersex

describes individuals possessing both male and female genitalia.

gender identity

how individuals see and describe their own gender

cisgender

described individuals whose gender identity matches their biological sex.

gender expression

how a person chooses to convey gender identity through behavior, voice, mannerisms, and other external characteristics.

sexual orientation

an individual’s enduring emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to other people

sexual and gender minority

the broad label applied to populations that include, but are not limited to, individuals who identify ad lesbian gay, bisexual, asexual transgender, queer, and/or intersex.

gender role socialization

the learning of gender roles through social factors such as schooling, the media, and family.

social construction of gender

the learning od gender roles through socialization and interaction with others

hegemonic masculinity

social norms dictating that men should be strong, self-reliant, and unemotional

feminist theory

a sociological perspective that emphasizes the centrality of gender in analyzing the social world and particularly the uniqueness of the experience of women.

liberal feminism

the form of feminist theory that posits that gender inequality in produced by unequal access to civil rights and certain social recourses, such as educational and employment, based on sex.

radical feminism

the form of feminist theory that posits that gender inequality is the result of male domination in all aspects of social economic life.

black feminism

the strand of feminist theory that highlights the multiple disadvantages of gender, class, and race that shape the experiences of non-white women.

transnational feminism

a branch of feminist theory that highlights the way that global processes - including colonialism, racism, and imperialism - shape gender relations and hierarchies

post modern feminism

the feminist perspective that challenges that idea of a unitary basis and identity and experience shared by all women.

gender inequality

the inequality between men and women in terms of wealth, income, and status

gender typing

women holding occupations of lower status and pay, such as secretarial and retails positions, and men holding jobs of higher status and pay, such as managerial and professional positions.

sex segregation

the concentration of men and women in different occupations

human capital theory

the argument that individuals make investments in their own “human capital” to increase their productivity and earnings

minority group

a group of people in a given society who, because of their distinct physical or cultural characteristics, find themselves in situations of inequality compared with the dominant group within that society.

race

a socially constructed category rooted in the belief that there are fundamental differences among humans, associated with phenotype and ancestry.

ethnicity

cultural values and norms that distinguish the members of a given group from others.

racism

the attribution of characteristics of superiority or inferiority to a population sharing certain physically inherited characteristics

prejudice

the holding of preconceived ideas about an individual or group, ideas that are resistant to change even in the face of new information

stereotyping

thinking in terms of fixed and inflexible categories

discrimination

behavior that denies to the members of a particular group resources or rewards that can be obtained by others

white privilege

the unacknowledged and unearned assets that benefit whites in their everyday lives.

institutional racism

the idea that racism occurs through the respected and established institutions of society rather than through hateful actions of some bad people

racial microaggressions

small slights, indignities, or acts of disrespected that are hurtful to people of color even though they are often perpetrated by well-meaning whites

scientific racism

the use of scientific research or data to justify or reify beliefs about the superiority or inferiority of particular racial groups

assimilation

the acceptance of a minority group by a majority population, in which the new group takes on the values and norms of the dominant culture

multiculturalism

a condition in which ethnic groups separately and share equally in economic and political life.

immigration

the movement of people into one country from another for the purpose of settlement

emigration

the movement of people out of one country to settle in another

segregation

the practice of keeping racial and ethnic groups physically separate, thereby maintaining the superior position of the dominant group

social movements

large groups of people who seek to accomplish, or to block, a process of social change

democracy

a political system that allows the citizens to participate in political decision making or elect representatives to government bodies, enabling them to directly or indirectly decide the laws under which they live.

participatory democracy

a system of democracy in which all members of a group or community participate collectively in making major decisions

representative democracy

a form of democracy in which citizens elect to governing bodies representatives who then vote on laws and policies

liberal democracy

a type of representative democracy in which elected representatives hold power

monarchy

a system of government in which an unelected king or queen rules

constitutional monarchy

a system of government in which a king or a queen is largely a figurehead and real power rests in the hands of other political leaders

authoritarianism

a political system in which the governing bodies or leaders use force to maintain control

populism

the belief that politics should reflect the needs and interests or ordinary people rather than those of elite individuals or groups

civil society

the realm of activity that lies between the state and the market, including the family, schools, community associations, and noneconomic institutions.

nation-states

particular types of states, characteristics of the modern world, in which governments have sovereign power within defined territorial areas, and populations are citizens who know themselves to be part of single nations

nation

people with a common identify that ideally includes shared culture, language, and feelings of belonging

state

a political apparatus ruling over a given territorial order, whose authority is backed by law and the ability to use force

sovereignty

the undisputed political rule of a state over a given territorial area

failed states

states in which the central government has lost authority and resorts to deadly force to retain power

nationalism

a set of beliefs and symbols expressing identification with a national community

local nationalism

the belief that communities that share a cultural identity should have politically autonomy even within smaller units or nation-states.

citizens

members of a political community, having both rights and duties associated with that membership

civil rights

legal rights held by all citizens in a given national community

political rights

rights of political participation, such as the right to vote in local and national elections, held by citizens of a national community