Extended Psychology Lecture Notes — Experiments, Research Methods, Biases, and Perspectives

A set of flashcards covering key concepts from experiments, research methods, biases, and perspectives in psychology.

What is a hypothesis?

An empirically testable proposition.

What is a representative sample?

A smaller group that provides a snapshot of the population.

What is a random sample?

A sample where each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

What is a convenience sample?

A sample selected by convenience or availability, not random.

What is a stratified sample?

A sample drawn from subcategories (strata) of the population, with random samples from each stratum.

What is random assignment in experiments?

Process by which participants are randomly assigned to the experimental or control group.

What is an experimental group?

The group that receives the treatment or IV.

What is a control group?

The group that does not receive the treatment or receives a placebo.

What is an independent variable?

The factor manipulated by the experimenter.

What is a dependent variable?

The outcome measured to see the effect of the IV.

What is a placebo?

A fake treatment given to participants to control for expectations.

What does a single-blind procedure entail?

Participants do not know which group they are in.

What does a double-blind procedure entail?

Neither participants nor researchers know which group participants are in.

In the coffee study example, what is the independent variable?

Type of drink (caffeinated, decaffeinated, or coffee-flavored water).

In the coffee study example, what is the dependent variable?

Behavioral outcomes such as alertness or crankiness.

What is Descriptive (Non-experimental) research?

Research that describes characteristics or factors; often uses case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observations.

What is Correlational research?

Research that examines the relationship between two variables to determine if they are related.

What is a Longitudinal study?

Data gathered from the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time.

What is a Cross-sectional study?

Data collected from a population or representative sample at a specific point in time.

What is Qualitative data?

Descriptive data in depth (e.g., interviews, observations, notes).

What is Quantitative data?

Numerical data (e.g., scores, measurements, scales).

What is a Survey in research methods?

A technique for ascertain­ing self-reported attitudes or behaviors from a random sample.

What is a strength of surveys?

Efficient and often affordable way to collect large amounts of data.

What is a weakness of surveys?

May lack a representative sample; question wording can bias responses; self-report bias.

What is the Experimental method?

A method where an investigator manipulates variables in a controlled environment to test causal effects.

What is Naturalistic observation?

Observing behavior in its natural setting; shows real-world behavior but has less control.

What is a Case Study?

An in-depth study of individuals or small groups.

What is a Quasi-experiment?

An experiment that lacks random assignment, using pre-existing groups; useful when true experiments are impractical.

What is a Meta-analysis?

A procedure for combining results from many studies to determine overall effects.

What is the Hawthorne Effect?

Participants alter their behavior because they know they are being observed.

What is Empiricism?

Knowledge comes from experience and scientific reliance on observation and experimentation.

What is Hindsight bias?

The tendency to see events as having been predictable after they have occurred.

What is Overconfidence bias?

Overestimating the accuracy of our beliefs or judgments.

What is Social Desirability Bias?

Tendency to answer in a way that will be viewed favorably by others.

What is Self-report Bias?

Inaccurate self-reports due to misunderstanding or deliberate misreporting.

What is Confirmation Bias?

Tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms beliefs.

What is Critical thinking?

Process of evaluating claims and evidence to make well-supported judgments.

What is the Biopsychosocial approach?

An integrated framework that considers biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors.

What are Biological influences in the Biopsychosocial model?

Genetic predispositions/mutations, natural selection, and gene–environment interactions.

What are Psychological influences in the Biopsychosocial model?

Learned fears and expectations, emotional responses, and cognitive processing.

What are Sociocultural influences in the Biopsychosocial model?

Presence of others, cultural/societal/family expectations, peer influence, and media.

What is the Biological (neuroscience) perspective?

Focus on brain and nervous system and how neural processes influence behavior.

What is the Evolutionary perspective?

Explains behavior through natural selection and adaptation.

What is the Psychodynamic perspective?

Emphasizes the unconscious mind and internal conflicts.

What is the Behavioral perspective?

Behavior is shaped by learning processes and environmental contingencies.

What is the Cognitive perspective?

How information is taken in, stored, and retrieved; mental processes.

What is the Humanistic perspective?

Emphasizes human growth, potential, and self-concept.

What is the Social-Cultural perspective?

Behavior is influenced by social and cultural context.

How are messages transmitted throughout the body?

Through the nervous and endocrine systems using neurons, neurotransmitters, and hormones.

How does evolution influence behavior?

Natural selection has shaped adaptive behaviors and cognitive strategies.