Research Methods Ch 1-4

data

information collected through experiments, research, etc.

evidence based treatment

psychotherapy technique whose effectiveness has been supported by empirical research

empiricism

collecting data systematically and using it to develop, support, or challenge a theory

quantitative method

using numbers for statistical analysis to collect empirical data

qualitative method

using interviews, observations to collect data that creates in depth descriptions of a phenomenon or group of people

reflexivity

researchers reflect on how own values, biases, or experiences might shape topics they study and interpretations made, used for qualitative method

theory

statement that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another

hypothesis

prediction of how the research design will turn out

preregistered

before collecting data, researcher publicly states the intended outcomes

replication

process of conducting a study again to test consistency

weight of evidence

conclusion drawn from reviewing literature and considering proportion of studies consistent with a theory

falsifiable

data collected to indicate a theory is wrong

self-correcting

research is made visible to peers for peer review

applied research

research with a goal to find a solution to particular real world problems

Begins with a practical problem and tests a possible solution

basic research

research with the goal to enhance general body of knowledge

universalism

Judge claims by scientific criteria rather than the status or identity of the person making them., merton’s scientific norm

communality

scientific knowledge is created by a community and its findings belong to the community merton’s scientific norm

disinterestedness

scientists strive to discover the truth whatever it is; they are not swayed by conviction, idealism, politics, or profit, merton’s scientific norm

organized skepticism

scientists question everything, including their own theories and ideas and accepted ideas, merton’s scientific norm

journal

A monthly or quarterly periodical containing peer-reviewed articles on a specific academic discipline or subdiscipline, written for a scholarly audience

journalism

News and commentary published or broadcast in the popular media and produced for a general audience.

comparison group

group in an experiment whose levels on the IV differ from those of the treatment group in some intended/meaningful way

confound

potential alternative explanation for a research finding, a threat to internal validity

confederate

actor who is directed by researcher to play a role in study

probabilistic

describing the empirical method, stating that science is intended to explain a certain proportion of the possible cases

availability heuristic

bias in intuition, people incorrectly estimate the frequency of something because it comes easier to our mind rather than using all possible evidence

confirmation bias

tendency to consider only evidence that supports our hypothesis

bias blind spot

tendency for people to think that compared to others, they are less likely to engage in biased reasoning

empirical journal article

scholarly article that reports for the first time the results of a study

review journal article

article that summarizes all the studies that have been published in one research area

meta analysis

Combining and synthesizing the results of multiple independent studies addressing the same research question

effect size

strength of a relationship between 2+ variables

pay walled

peer-reviewed academic journal that requires a subscription or fees

open access

peer reviewed academic journal that is public and free

disinformation

A news story, photo, or video deliberately created to be false or misleading.

click restraint

pausing before accepting, sharing or following info online

lateral reading

checking alternative sources before accepting, sharing, or following info online

variable

an attribute that varies, having at least 2 levels or values (ex. type of diet)

levels

one of the possible variations of a variable (veganism, vegetarian)

constant

an attribute that could potentially vary but that has only one level in the study in question

measured variable

variable in a study whose levels are observed/recorded

manipulated variable

variable in a study that researchers control and change

construct/conceptual variable

name of concept being studied

operational definition

specific way a concept of interest is described, measured or manipulated as a variable in a study

operationalize

to turn a conceptual definition of a variable into a specific measured variable or manipulated variable in order to conduct a study

claim

argument someone is trying to make

frequency claim

claim that describes a particular rate/degree of a single variable, uses %, numbers, etc.

construct, external, statistical validity most important

association claim

claim about 2+ variables in which the value of one variable is said to vary systematically with the value of another variable (linked, associated, predicts, etc.

external, construct, statistical validty most important

correlate

to occur or vary together

correlational study

study that includes 2+ variables where all variables are measured; can support an association claim

positive association

as one variable goes up, so does the other variable, same with going down

negative association

as one variable goes up, the other goes down

no/zero association

lack of systemic association between variables, has no slope

scatterplot

A graphical representation of an association, in which each dot represents one participant in the study measured on two variables.

causal claim

claim arguing that a specific change in one variable is responsible for influencing the value of another variable (cause, enhance, affect, change, etc.)

internal, construct, statistical validity most important

validity

appropriateness of a conclusion or decision

construct validity

how well each variable was measured or manipulated, whether study captures the intended idea

generalization

the process of applying a learned behavior, response, or skill to a new, similar stimulus or situation

external validity

how well the results of a study can be generalized to a greater population. random sampling, representative sample, etc.

statistical validity

The extent to which statistical conclusions derived from a study are accurate and reasonable

point estimate

a single estimate of some population value based on data from a sample (percentage, a correlation, or a difference)

confidence interval

total range indicated by a lower and upper value that is designed to capture the population value for some point estimate (e.g., percentage, difference, or correlation); point estimate plus/minus margin of error

margin of error of the estimate

statistical value that tells you how much a result might differ from the actual truth for the whole population (ex. saying it will cost between 2 numbers but the actual number could be more or less than that estimate)

covariance

study’s results showing A is associated with B

temporal precedence

study’s method ensures that A comes first, in time, before B

internal validity

One of three criteria for establishing a causal claim; a study's ability to rule out alternative explanations for a causal relationship between two variables, extent to which variable A is responsible for B changes

experiment

A study in which at least one variable is manipulated and another is measured.

independent variable

variable that is manipulated

dependent variable

variable that is measured and affected by independent variable

random assignment

everyone has an equal chance of being in either groups in an experiment, ensures internal validity

debrief

To inform participants afterward about a study's true nature, details, and hypotheses.

respect for persons

An ethical principle from the Belmont Report stating that research participants should be treated as autonomous agents and that certain groups deserve special protection.

voluntary particpants, informed consent, right to withdraw

informed consent

the right of research participants to learn about a research project, know its risks and benefits, and decide whether to participate

beneficent/concern for welfare

An ethical principle from the Belmont Report stating that researchers must take precautions to protect participants from harm and to promote their well-being

minimize harm, balance risk against a value of knowledge, protect privacy, monitor stress, debrief

anonymous study

A research study in which identifying information is not collected, thereby completely protecting the identity of participants

confidential study

A research study in which identifying information is collected but protected from disclosure to people other than the researchers

justice

An ethical principle from the Belmont Report calling for a fair balance between the kinds of people who participate in research and the kinds of people who benefit from it

recruit participants fairly, avoid exploiting disadvantaged groups

Institutional review board

committee responsible for ensuring that research using human participants is conducted ethically

deception through omission

the withholding of some details of a study from participants

deception through commission

the act of actively lying to participants

data fabrication

a form of research misconduct where a researcher invents data that fit the hypothesis

data falsification

A form of research misconduct in which a researcher influences a study's results, ex. deleting observations from a dataset or by influencing participants to act in the hypothesized way.

plagirism

Representing the ideas or words of others as one's own; a form of research misconduct.

self-plagarism

A potentially unethical practice in which researchers recycle their own previously published text, verbatim and without attribution, in a subsequent article.

replacement

replace animals when possible, use something different

reduction

use the fewest amount of animals possible

refinement

change procedures to reduce stress in animals

undue influence

not being able to pass up a study because the incentive is too good, part of informed consent and respect for persons

coercion

participating in a study due to a worry of negative consequence, part of informed consent and respect for persons

Theory

Research Question

Hypothesis

Data

Revise

theory date cycle

abstract

intro

method

results

discussion

references

Parts of Empirical Article

curvilinear

direction or strength changes across the range

APA guidelines for researching

use APA PsycInfo, search title field, join valid alternative terms with OR, limit to peer review, meta analysis, humans, adults, english, January 1, 2015-August 31, 2026

Refine and Submit

aim for 25-35 initial results, inspect title and abstracts for genuine relevance, retain 10-15 relevant results, export final search history as PDF