AP Psychology Unit 0 Terms

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Pilars of Psychology

Structure of how modern psychology is set up

Biological Pilar

Biological bases of behavior

Sensation

Consciousness

Cognition Pilar

Cognition

Memory

Perception

Inteligence

Development and Learning Pilar

Language development

Learning language

Social and Personality Pilar

Social personality

Multiculturalism and Gender

Motivation and Emotion

Mental and Physical Health Pilar

Disorders

Health

Therapies

Important Takeaway/Big Idea

People make many choices and make different thoughts. Humans make hundreds of choices a day

Cognitive Bias

What → Systematic error in thinking

Why→Our brain uses mental shortcuts (Heuristics)

Affects→Memory, decisions, problem solving, judgments

Hindsight Bias

“I knew it all along”

the tendency to believe after an event occurred, that we knew the outcome all along

We think events are more predictable than they really are

Overconfidence

We think we know more than we do

Our confidence outweighs our accuracy

Confirmation Bias

We seek out information that affirms our own assumptions and beliefs.

Rather than evaluating all available evidence

Perceiving Order

Tendency to perceive order in random events

We think there are patterns or correlation where it does not exist.

Perspective

Point of view or a lens

Evolutionary Perspective

Use & apply the knowledge and principles from evolutionary biology to the human mind

Biological Perspective

Seeks to understand and explain how the elements of our brain and or bodies are connected to our behaviors and thought processes

Psychodynamic Perspective

Focuses on how the unconscious mind influences your thoughts and behaviors such as: repressed memories, inner motivations & conflicts below your conscious awareness

Behavioral Perspective

Behavior is learned through experiences and interactions with the environment. Focusses on psychology as an objective science-something you can see and observe (unlike our thoughts)

Humanist Perspective

Focuses on a persons potential, personal growth, and free will. Believes people naturally want to grow and become the best version of themselves. We are trying to fill our needs to be the best version of ourselves. (self actualization)

Cognitive Perspective

Cognition=Thinking

Focuses mainly on mental processes rather than behaviors. The way we interpret situations affects how we feel and behave. Unhealthy or negative thoughts can lead to negative outcomes.

Sociocultural Perspective

Focuses on our mental processes and behaviors are influenced by our interactions with: other people, social environment, and cultural norms & expectations

Biopsychosocial Perspective

Examines how multiple interconnected factors influence our thoughts and behaviors. Biological factor (neurochemistry, etc.), Sociocultural factors (peer groups, etc. ), Psychological Factors (self esteem, etc.)

Theory

An idea based on a collection of observations and principles

Hypothesis

A prediction that tests a theory

Hypothesis (Operational Definition)

A detailed description of how a variable will be measured or manipulated. Must be precise and measurable. Allows the study to be understood and replicated in the future.

Population

The entire group you want to draw conclusions about

Sample

Smaller group used for collecting data

Randomized

Every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected

Representative

Represents the demographics & characteristics of the population

Convenience Sampling

Selecting participants based on accessibility. Can lead to sampling bias and results.

Generalizations

If your sample is random & representative →you can make findings to the population

Do the research

• collect data

• organize data

• analyze data

• evaluate findings

• was the hypothesis accepted or rejected?

Peer Review

Submitting research to experts in the field

• Give feedback

• Double check your process

• Check for biases

• Make sure your research is truthful and valid

Replication

“Good” research can be replicated

• utilized the same variables

• utilizes the same operational definitions

• hopefully you get results that further support or refute your hypothesis

Reliability

• Replication improves reliability of the results

• If you replicate with different samples → more reliable

Experiments

Hypothesis will look at a cause and effect relationship

Independent Variable

the factor that is changed or manipulated by the researcher

the “cause”

Dependent Variable

The factor that is influenced by the independent variable

The “Effect”

Cofounding Variable

Any other factor that, if not controlled, can influence the results

Experiments after getting a random sample

Grouping

Experimental Group

Receives Variable

Control Group

Does not receive variable

Assignments into the groups should be RANDOM

Sample then assign

Placebo

Inactive treatment given to prevent participants from knowing which group they are in

Placebo effect

Participants in control group have a perceived or real change in condition

Single Blind

Participants do not know if they are receiving the variable (experimental group) or placebo (control group)

Double Blind

The participants & researchers do not know which group is receiving the variable (experimental group) or placebo (control group).

Experimenter Bias

When a researchers beliefs or expectations influence the outcome or interpretation of a study

Case Study

In depth examination of a person, event, or group

• Can give good insight into psychological phenomena

• Replication is difficult

• CANNOT determine cause and effect

Naturalistic Observation

Observes behavior of subjects

• Subjects in their natural environment

• Researchers do not interfere

• CANNOT DETERMINE CAUSE AND EFFECT

Correlation Study

Focuses on RELATIONSHIP between variables

• Does not manipulate variables

• Looks for patterns, trends, and links

• CANNOT DETERMINE CAUSE AND EFFECT

Meta-Analysis

Put together data from multiple studies

• Helps produce a single conclusion

• Makes findings more clear and reliable

• CANNOT DETERMINE CAUSE AND EFFECT

Experiment Big Ideas

Researchers manipulate variables

CAN determine cause and effect

Non Experiment Big Ideas

Shows patterns and relationships between variables

CANNOT DETERMINE CAUSE AND EFFECT

Research Method: Quantitive

• Data that is numerical

Research Method: Qualitive

• Data that is open ended narrative

Bias

a systematic, often unconscious error in thinking or judgment that distorts how we perceive and interpret the world

Wording Effects

Changes in wording that can influence responses

Self Reporting Bias

inaccurate data based off the subject

Informed Consent

• Participants AGREE to be in the study.

• Participants have all necessary information to decide

Informed Assent

For minors

Protection from Harm

Researchers must protect participants from physical or psychological harm.

Right to Withdrawal

Participants can leave the study AT ANY TIME

Deception

• Intentionally misleading participants about a part of the study.

• Must be justified and necessary for the study

Confederates

• People who appear to be participants but are actually working with the researchers

• AKA: Actors

Confidentiality

Researchers must protect participant’s personal information and identities

Debriefing

Researchers explain the true purpose of study

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

• A committee that reviews research involving human participants before the study begins.

• Decides if a study is following ethical guidelines.

Correlation Research

Non Experimental

• Focuses on relationship between variables

• Looks at patterns, trends, and links.

CANNOT PROVE CAUSE AND EFFECT

Illusory Correlations

• the perception of a relationship between 2 variables when one does not exist

Directional Problem

occurs when 2 variables are related but it is unclear which variable is the cause and which is the effect

Bidirectional Influence

occurs when 2 variables are related and influence each other (aka: bidirectionality)

Third Variable Problem

an unmeasured variable ( c ) influences both variables being studied

• Creates a false impression that the variables (A&B) are related.

Relationship and Direction (Positive)

• Direct relationship

• When one variable is high, the other is high

Relationship and Direction (Negative)

• Inverse relationship

• When one variable is high, the other is low

Relationship and Direction (No Correlation)

• Graph shows no pattern, slope, or grouping.

Correlation Coefficient

Numerical value that tells you:

1. How strong a relationship is between 2 variables

2. What “direction” the relationship is

Mean

the average of the data set

Median

Value that fills in the center of the data

• Need to order data in chronological order!

Mode

Value that occurs most frequently

Distribution Curves

A graph that shows how data is spread out across a range of values

• Helps visualize the frequency of different values

• Used to identify patterns and trends in psychological data

Normal Curve

A bell shaped symmetrical curve that shows data is distributed

• Most scores cluster around the mean (average) with fewer scores at the extremes

Distribution Curves

Skewed

Negative Skew

Low scoring outliers have pulled the mean lower than the majority of points

Positive Skew

High scoring outliers pull the mean higher than the majority of data points

Bimodal

A distribution with 2 peaks/modes

• Indicates the two common values or groups in the data

Measures of Variation

A statistical value that tells us how much scores in a set of data differ from each other.

Range

Difference between the highest and lowest data values

• max-min

• Difference (minus)

Standard Deviation

A measure of how much scores vary around the mean

High Standard Deviation

Values are spread further apart

Low Standard Deviation

Values are clustered around the mean

The Empirical Rule +- 1 Standard Deviation

68% of the data falls with one standard deviation of the mean

The Empirical Rule +- 2 Standard Deviation

95% of data falls within two standard deviations of the mean

The Empirical Rule +- 3 Standard Deviation

99.7% of the data falls within three standard deviations of the mean