IB Psych - Learning + Cognition

What is the difference between the brain and the mind?

The brain is a physical organ studied through biology, while the mind is a construct representing mental processes, which are not directly observable.

What is an animal model in psychology?

An animal used in research because it is thought to be similar enough to humans to test hypotheses and apply findings.

What are benefits of using animals in psychology research?

Easier to control variables, fewer ethical restrictions, genetic experiments possible, shorter lifespans allow generational studies, no family permission needed for post-mortem exams.

What are limitations of using animals in psychology research?

Results may not generalize to humans, most testing happens in stressful lab environments, results must be replicated with humans.

What are the 3Rs of ethical animal research?

Replace (with alternatives), Reduce (number of animals), Refine (minimize suffering).

What is classical conditioning?

Learning by association, when two stimuli are linked because they occur together.

What are US, UR, CS, and CR?

Unconditioned Stimulus, Unconditioned Response, Conditioned Stimulus, Conditioned Response.

What is acquisition in classical conditioning?

The stage when a subject learns to connect the CS with the US.

What is generalization in classical conditioning?

Responding to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

What is discrimination in classical conditioning?

Learning to respond only to the conditioned stimulus and not to similar ones.

What is aversion therapy?

A method where unwanted behaviors are paired with unpleasant stimuli to reduce the behavior.

What are limitations of classical conditioning?

Some associations are easier to learn (like food + illness), novel stimuli are easier to connect, motivation matters, learned associations fade without repetition.

What is operant conditioning?

A learning process where behavior is shaped by consequences (reinforcement or punishment).

What is clicker training?

A technique where a click sound marks desired behavior and is followed by a reward.

What is a token economy?

A system where tokens are earned for good behavior and exchanged for rewards.

What is continuous reinforcement?

Reinforcement given every time a behavior occurs (fast learning, fast extinction).

What is partial reinforcement?

Reinforcement given only sometimes (slower learning, but greater resistance to extinction).

What is a criticism of operant conditioning?

It often focuses on extrinsic motivation, which can disappear once rewards/punishments are gone.

What does Social Learning Theory propose?

People learn not only from their own experiences but also by observing others.

What are Bandura’s four mediational processes?

Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation.

What factors influence whether a model’s behavior is imitated?

Consistency, authority or fame, likability, and similarity to the observer.

What is self-efficacy?

A person’s belief in their ability to succeed; higher self-efficacy increases learning.

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Learning by watching the consequences of another person’s behavior.

What is a schema?

A mental framework or representation that organizes knowledge and expectations.

What is assimilation in schema theory?

Fitting new information into existing schemas, sometimes ignoring details that don’t fit.

What is accommodation in schema theory?

Changing schemas when new information doesn’t fit.

How do schemas affect information processing?

They reduce effort, help interpret new information (top-down processing), and improve recall of schema-consistent details.

How can schemas reduce memory reliability?

People may forget schema-inconsistent details or “fill in” gaps with schema-consistent information.

What are strengths of schema theory?

Explains and predicts behavior across cultures, supported by biological evidence, useful in teaching and therapy.

What are limitations of schema theory?

Hard to measure schemas, possible construct validity issues, many studies are artificial.