CPL 1

Introduction to Chemical Process Laboratory

Responsible Care

A key event in 1996 by the Chemical Industries Association of the Philippines (SPIK) which promoted a commitment to health, safety, and environmental protection.

Philippine Mining Act

In 1995, this was passed as even though it does not directly focus on chemicals, it impacted the sourcing and regulation of mineral-based raw materials used in the industry. 

third-largest manufacturing sub-sector

In 2017, analysis revealed that the chemical industry was the _____, contributing an estimated 11 % to the total manufacturing value added.

2015

During this year, the sector’s revenues reached $7.6 billion, marking a 7% increase from 2010. 

Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR)

In 2016, the government’s _______ on controlled chemicals streamlined the permitting process, reduced the number of regulated substances, and cut approval times, making it easier to conduct business.

Between 2010 and 2015

During these years, chemical exports saw an average annual growth rate of 17% with Japan and China as the top destinations.

$3.8 billion by 2024

The Philippines’ chemical market is projected to reach _____, driven by increasing demand from industrialization and infrastructure development. 

Investment Priorities Plan

The government’s ______ continues to list petrochemicals and oleochemicals as priority areas for investment, ensuring continued support for the sector’s growth.

Chemical Process Laboratory

This is the starting point where new ideas are born and tested on a small, controlled scale. 

DOTA

D - Discover new compounds or reactions

O - Optimize reaction parameters like temperature, pressure, and catalysts to maximize yield and purity

T - Troubleshoot problems that may arise during early development. The lab environment is about precision, analysis, and experimentation. 

A - Analyze the properties and composition of raw materials or products

What are the objectives of chemists and scientists in the chemical process laboratory?

Chemical Process Technology 

This is the bridge between the lab and the factory. Once a process is proven to be successful in the lab, chemical engineers use their knowledge of thermodynamics, fluid dynamics, and heat transfer to design the technology to make it work on an industrial scale. 

DDES

D - Designing the plant layout and selecting large-scale equipment like reactors, distillation columns, and heat exchangers. 

D - Developing control systems and instrumentation to automate and monitor the process.

E - Ensuring safety and environmental compliance for the large-scale operation.

S - Scaling up the process from a small batch to a continuous, high-volume flow

What are the objectives in chemical process technologies?

Chemical Process Industry 

This term refers to the entire sector of the economy that uses chemical processes to create products. It encompasses all the companies, plants, and facilities involved in large-scale manufacturing. The industry is the final destination for a successful process, where the technology is implemented to produce goods for consumers and other businesses. 

3PF

P - Petroleum refining (turning crude oil into gasoline)

P - Pharmaceutical manufacturing (producing drugs and medicines)

P - Plastics and polymers production

F - Fertilizers, paints, and detergents manufacturing. The industry is driven by market forces, economic viability, and the efficient operation of the chemical process technology. 

What are some examples of chemical process industries? 

creative industry 

The chemical industry is fundamentally different from other manufacturing sectors because it is a _____ in which the goal is not just to assemble pre-existing parts but to initiate a process starting from an ore or raw chemical to develop an economically profitable and usable consumer product.

Chemical technology

the practical application of chemical engineering principles to produce chemicals on an industrial scale 

• Inorganic Chemical Technology

• Organic Chemical Technology 

What are the two main areas where chemical technology is categorized?

Inorganic Chemical Technology

This field primarily deals with the production of non-carbon-based compounds (ex: fuel and industrial gases, fertilizers w/ N,P,K, chloroalkaline, cement and lime, and glass manufacturing) 

Organic Chemical Technology

The area of chemical technology that focuses on carbon-based compounds which are further classified into natural products and synthetic organic chemical industries.

Natural Product Industries

These industries process naturally occurring materials like edible and essential oils, soaps, carbohydrates, and products from fermentation. 

Synthetic Organic Chemical Industries

These industries create new, synthetic compounds like petrochemicals, polymers, detergents, and pesticides. 

Chemical Plant

It is a combination of various physical and chemical transformations designed to convert raw materials into final products; they are categorized as either Unit Operations or Unit Processes. 

Unit Operations

physical or mechanical changes that alter a material’s state, but not its chemical composition

Unit Processes

these are chemical changes that transform one substance into another through a chemical reaction; they are the core of the production cycle, where processed raw materials are converted into valuable products

• Upstream Processes (Pre-processing)

• Reaction

• Downstream Processes (Post-processing) 

The three-stage sequence in an overall plant layout

Upstream Processes (Pre-processing)

This stage in an overall plant layout involves preparing the raw materials for reaction, primarily through various unit operations.

Reaction

This is the heart of the overall plant layout, where the chemical transformation (unit process) occurs to create the desired products/ 

Downstream Processes (Post-processing)

This final stage of the overall plant layout focuses on separating and purifying the final products from the reaction mixture, typically using a combination of unit operations. 

Natural Chemical Industries Examples 

• Oils and Fats Industry

• Soaps and Detergents Industry

• Sugar and Starch Industry

• Fermentation Industry

• Pulp and Paper Industry 

Edible oils

naturally occurring long-chain fatty acids and their esters, such as glycerides; they are typically manufactured by extraction from seeds and followed by the process of hydrogenation

Essential Oils

these are organic compounds known for their pleasant odor; they are widely used in cosmetics, perfumes, soaps, and medicines

Soaps and Detergents Industry

this industry is based on the principles of colloidal chemistry and produces compounds used for cleanliness and industrial surface-active applications

Soaps

these are compounds of the type R-COOM, where R-COO- is a fatty acid radical derived from sources like oleic, stearic, palmitic, lauric, and myristic acids; they are produced through hydrolysis and saponification processes

Detergents

while often discussed alongside soaps, these are synthetic organic chemicals which are designed to lower surface tension more effectively than soaps; examples are sulfated fatty alcohols and alkyl-aryl sulfonates 

Sugar and Starch Industry

this industry’s products are carbohydrates, which are naturally occurring organic compounds with a combination of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) in a ratio similar to water (H2O).

Sugar

common products are sucrose and dextrose; production methods include the extraction of sugar cane to produce crystalline white sugar or jaggery

Starch

commonly produced from maize kernels, _____ is used to produce derivatives such as dextrin, dialdehyde starch, and starch phosphates

Fermentation Industry

uses specific microorganisms to act on a substrate to produce a desired chemical compound; categorized into aerobic and anaerobic

TRUE

TRUE OR FALSE: Fermentation products such as ethanol, butanol, and acetone are gradually being replaced by synthetic processes that utilize cheap and abundant raw materials. Fermentation can be carried out using either batch or continuous production methods 

Pulp and Paper Industry

this industry produces pulp, which is commercial cellulose

TRUE

TRUE OR FALSE: Historically, India has been a pioneer, being the first country to use bamboo as raw material for paper; other sources include bagasse and wood using mechanical or chemical methods

Synthetic Chemical Industries Examples 

• Petroleum Processing Industry 

• Petrochemicals Industry 

• Rubber Industry 

• Polymer Industry 

Petroleum

a fossil fuel formed millions of years ago from organic marine deposits in anaerobic conditions; it is a major source of energy and serves as the fundamental raw mat for producing a vast number of synthetic organic chemicals and is conisdered one of the highest-ranking chemical industries globally 

a mixture of open-chain or aliphatic compounds, ring or cyclic compounds, and asphalts

What is the chemical composition of petroleum?

Petrochemicals

chemical compounds derived, either partially or entirely from petroleum or natural gas hydrocarbons (HCs) 

• natural gas

• liquefied petroleum gas

• refinery off-gases

• naphtha

• fuel oil

• petroleum coke

What are the principal raw materials for producing petrochemicals?

C1 to C4 compounds, aromatics, and pesticides

What are the products in petrochemical industry?

TRUE

TRUE OR FALSE: Rubber can be natural or synthetic

True Rubber

defined as a polymeric elastomer that can elongate by at least 200% and rapidly return to its original dimensions 

• butadiene-styrene copolymer (SBR) 

• synthetic fibers

• nylons

• polyester fibers

• viscous rayon fibers

What are the common products or rubber?

• Adhesives

• Coatings and films

• Fibers 

• Solid Shapes 

What are the classifications of polymers based on their applications?

TRUE

TRUE OR FALSE: Chemical plants are composed of approximately two-thirds unit operations and their connecting pipes, with the remaining portion dedicated to unit processes and supporting accessories. 

TRUE

TRUE OR FALSE: The principles of unit operations are universal meaning it can be applied anywhere and only the operating conditions need to be adjusted to suit specific requirements. 

Alkylation

• addition of an alkyl radical (like -CH3) to a molecule

• Ex: alkene and alkane reaction in the presence of a catalyst and heat to form a branched alkane (2,2,4-trimethyl pentane) 

Amination by Ammonolysis

DEF: A halogenated hydrocarbon reacts with ammonia to form an amine.

EX: Ethylene dichloride reacts with ammonia to produce ethylene diamine

Ammonoxidation

DEF: An alkene, ammonia, and oxygen react to form nitrile and water

EX: Propylene, ammonia, and air react to produce acrylonitrile and water

Amination by Reduction

DEF: A nitro compound is reduced to an amine using hydrogen

EX: 2-nitroparaffin is reduced with hydrogen to form isopropylamine 

Carbonylation

DEF: A molecule reacts with carbon monoxide

EX: Methanol reacts with CO to produce acetic acid

Condensation

DEF: Two molecules combine to form a larger molecule, often with the elimination of  a small molecule like water 

EX: Benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde react in the presence of NaOH to form cinnamaldehyde and water

Cracking or Pyrolysis

DEF: The breakdown of large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller, more valuable ones using heat

EX: A long-chain alkane breaks down into smaller alkane and an alkene 

Cyanidation or Cyanation

DEF: The addition of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) to a molecule

EX: Acetylene (HC triple bond CH) reacts with HCN to produce acrylonitrile 

Cyclization

DEF: The formation of a ring structure from a linear molecule, often with a loss of hydrogen

EX: A straight chain alkane forms a cyclic compound like cyclohexane, releasing hydrogen gas

Dehydration

DEF: The removal of water molecule from a compound

EX: Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) undergoes dehydration to form ethylene (CH2 double bond CH2) and water 

Dehydrogenation

DEF: The removal of hydrogen molecule from a compound

EX: Propane undergoes deyhdrogenation to form propene

Diazotization

DEF: An amine reacts with nitrous acid (HNO2) and a mineral acid (like HCL) to form a diazonium salt. 

EX: If R is a benzene ring, aniline is converted to benzenediazonium chloride. This product is highly unstable and is therefore prepared only when needed. 

Coupling

DEF: A diazonium compound reacts with another aromatic compound

EX: N,N - dimethylaniline reacts with a diazonium compound to produce p-dimethylaminoazobenzene

Disproportionation

DEF: A molecule is both oxidized and reduced simultaneously. One example is the transfer of a hydrogen atom between two identical molecules. 

EX: Two molecules of propene (2CH2:CHCH3) react to form ethylene and 2-butene

Esterification

DEF: An alcohol reacts with a carboxylic acid to form an ester and water

EX: ROH and R’COOH react to form R’COOR and H2O. An acid catalyst like H2SO4 is often used, which can also form an intermediate (RHSO4) 

Halogenation

DEF: The addition of a halogen atom to a molecule

EX: Ethylene reacts with chlorine to form 1,2-dichloroethane. Toluene reacts with chlorine to form benzyl chloride

Hydration

DEF: The addition of a water molecule to a compound, typically across a double bond

EX: Ethylene reacts with water to form ethanol

Hydroformylation (Oxo Process)

DEF: An alkene reacts with carbon monoxide and hydrogen to form an aldehyde

EX: RCH=CH2 + CO + H2 —> R(CH2)2-CHO

Hydrogenation

DEF: The addition of hydrogen (H2) to a molecule, typically to reduce a double or triple bond

EX: R=R’ + H2 —> RH-HR’

Hydrolysis

DEF: The cleavage of a chemical bond by the addition of water

EX: Chlorobenzene (C6H5Cl) reacts with water to form phenol and hydrochloric acid

Hydroxylation

DEF: The addition of a hydroxyl (-OH) group to a molecule

EX: An alcohol reacts with ethylene oxide to form a polyether alcohol 

Isomerization

DEF: The rearrangement of atoms within a molecule to form an isomer. This typically involves changing the molecular structure without changing the chemical formula. 

EX: A straight chain alkane rearranges under the influence of a catalyst and heat to form a branched isomer

Oligomerization

DEF: The combination of a few monomer molecules to form a larger molecule called an oligomer.

EX: Three molecules or propene (3CG2:CHCH2) combine to form a cyclic trimer, 1,5,9-cyclododecatriene

Oxidation

DEF: The addition of oxygen to a compound or the removal of hydrogen from it.

EX: An alcohol reacts with oxygen to form an aldehyde and a carboxylic acid

Addition Polymerization

DEF: Monomers with double bonds link together without the loss of any atoms, forming a long polymer chain 

EX: Ethylene monomers link together to form polyethylene, where (CH2)n represents the polymer chain

Condensation Polymerization

DEF: Monomers link together by splitting off small molecules such as water, ammonia, formaldehyde, or sodium chloride

EX: Ethylene glycol reacts with terephthalic acid to form alkyd resins and water 

Sulfonation

DEF: The introduction of a sulfonic acid group (-SO3H) to a molecule

EX: Benzene reacts with sulfuric acid formed benzene sulfonic acid

Thionation

DEF: The introduction of sulfur into an organic molecule

EX: Butadiene reacts with two sulfur atoms to form thiophene and hydrogen sulfide. Methanol reacts with hydrogen sulfide to form methanethiol and water. 

Size Reduction(Comminution or Grinding) 

a process that reduces large solid particles into smaller ones; this is a crucial step to increase the surface area of a solid, which is vital for enhancing the rates of various physical and chemical processes like drying, dissolution and reaction

Compression

A size reduction mechanism wherein a material is crushed between two surfaces (e.g. in jaw crushers or roller crushers); this is effective for hard solids 

Impact

A size reduction mechanism wherein a material is hit by a high-speed object or it hits a stationary surface at high velocity (e.g. hammer mills); this is suitable for brittle materials 

Attrition

A size reduction mechanism wherein particles rub and scrape against each other (e.g., in a fluid energy mill or a ball mill at low speeds) 

Cutting

A size reduction mechanism wherein a material is sheared by sharp blades (e.g. in a cutter mill); this is suitable for soft, fibrous materials

Rittinger’s Law

A size reduction law which states that the work required for grinding is proportional to the new surface area created; this applies primarily to fine grinding

Kick’s Law

A size reduction law which states that the work required is proportional to the reduction ratio; this is more applicable in coarse crushing

Bond’s Law

A size reduction law that provides a more general theory stating that the work required to reduce particle size is proportional to the new crack length created. 

Size Enlargement (Agglomeration) 

The process of combining small particles into larger, more stable masses or aggregates 

Improve handling

It is one reason for agglomeration, which reduces dust, prevents segregation of mixtures, and improves the flow characteristics of a material. 

Increased porosity

Another reason for agglomeration wherein the goal is to create a more open bed for gas or liquid flow, improving efficiency in reactors or furnaces.

Controlling Properties

A reason for agglomeration where the goal is to change properties like bulk density, thermal conductivity, and reactivity

Granulation

A common method in size enlargement in which granules are created using a binder and a mixing action

Pelletizing

A common method in agglomeration wherein spherical pellets are formed from fine powders, often with the addition of a binder.

Briquetting

A common method of agglomeration wherein a material is compressed into a solid shape, often a “briquette”

Solid-solid Separation

To separate mixtures of solid particles based on a physical property

Sieving

A method of solid-solid sepa wherein particles are separated by size using screens or sieves with defined openings; this is a fundamental method for particle size analysis and classification

Magnetic Separation

A method of solid-solid sepa wherein magnetic materials are separated from non-magnetic ones

Froth Flotation

A solid-solid sepa used for separating fine particles based on their surface properties (hydrophilic vs. hydrophobic)