Introduction to Research Methodology Test Two Study Guide

Reliability

Making sure that different items on a survey or questionnaire that were written to measure the same behavior all provoke similar responses from research participants, also means the ability to replicate the results under similar conditions. (Playing darts and having four darts land in the same area.

Vailidity

How well our study tests what we want to test, in other words, a study with high validity will provide accurate information about the behavior we’re interested in. (Playing darts and hitting the bullseye most of the time.)

Nominal

the simplest form (Gender, marital, status, college major.)

Interval

no true zero point, zero is not a true zero (Farenheit and Celsius)

Ratio

has a true zero point, there is no negative point (Kelvin, age measured by days since birth.)

Bivalent Independent Variable

variables test the effect of the presence versus absence of something, has two levels of the independent variable

Multivalent Independent Variable

manipulated amounts of a factor in different levels, has three or more levels of the independent variable

Independent Variable

is manipulated by researchers to test a hypothesis

Quasi Independent Variable

allows for comparison of groups of participants without manipulation (i. e., no random assignment; sometimes called a subject variable

Experimental Bias

occurs when researchers treat groups different based on hypothesis

Testing Effect

occurs when participants are treated in multiple times

Regression Toward the Mean

occurs when participants obtain an extreme score on a questionnaire than on the second test they score more around their average

Attrition/Mortality

participants decide not to complete a study

Hawthorne Effect

can occur due to participants changing their behavior because they are scared of being observed (Being good at work when the Boss is around)

Demand Characteristics

occurs when participants try to figure out the study and change their behavior based on what they think the study is about

Presence/Absence

variables manipulation with  a level that involves the treatment and a level that does not involve the treatment

Type Variables

involves a manipulation of types of a treatment

Amount Variable

includes levels with a different amount of the treatment changing from level to level

Type of manipulations of independent variables.

Presence/Absence, Type Variables, Amount Variables.

What is the Hawthorne Effect

Landsberger’s study on workers in Western Electric Company. Observed workers being diligent when the boss is around.

Population

the group in a research study that the researchers want to know about

Sample

is the group of individuals participating in the study who are a part of the larger population

Sampling Error

the difference between the observations in a population and in the sample that represents the population in a study

Two different sampling techniques.

Probability Sampling and Convenience Sampling

Probability Sampling

sample chosen such that individuals are chosen with a specific probability

Convenience Sampling

also called a PURPOSIVE SAMPLE, sample chosen such that the probability of an individuals being chosen cannot be determined

Probability sampling techniques.

Simple Random Sampling, Cluster Samples, Stratified Random Samples

Simple Random Sampling

sample chosen randomly from the population such that each individual has an equal chance of being selected (give most representative sample of the overall population)

Cluster Samples

sample chose randomly from clusters identified in the population

Stratified Random Samples

sample chosen from the population such that the proportion of individuals with a particular characteristic is equivalent in the population and the sample

Convenience Sampling techniques.

Volunteer Samples, Quota Samples, Snowball Samples.

Volunteer Samples

also called a haphazard sample. Sample chosen from the population such that available individuals are chosen based on who volunteers to participate

Quota Samples

sample chosen from the population such that available individuals are chosen with equivalent proportions of individuals for a specific characteristic in the population and sample

Snowball Samples

sample where past participants recommend future participants from the same population

Response Rate

the percentage of people out of the total number available who respond to a survey

Descriptive Statistics

measure that helps us summarize data

Inferential Statistics

a set of statistical procedures used by researchers to test hypotheses about populations

Distribution

a set of scores, measures the spread of data

Central Tendency

representation of a typical score in a distribution

Mean

calculated average of scores in a distribution

Median

the middle score in a distribution, such that half of the scores are above and half are below that value

Mode

the most common score in a distribution

Three basic measures commonly used to describe the central tendency.

Mean, Median, Mode

Measures of variability.

Range, Standard Deviation, Variance

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Standard Deviation

a measure representing the average difference between the scores and the mean of a distribution

Variance

the standard deviation of a distribution squared

Two-tailed Hypothesis

both direction of an effect or relationship is predicted in the alternative hypothesis of the test

One-tailed Hypothesis

only one direction of an effect or relationship is predicted in the alternative hypothesis of the test

Null Hypothesis

the hypothesis that an effect or relationship does not exist, or exists in the opposite direction of the alternative hypothesis, in the population

Alternative Hypothesis

it is predicting that there is an effect and their is a relationship

What are inferential statistics looking for?

They are looking for evidence against the null hypothesis in order to support our alternative hypothesis that something is connected and is happening.

Alpha Level

the probability level used by researchers to indicate the cut-off probability level (highest value) that allows them to reject the null hypothesis

p Value

the probability value associated with inferential tests that indicates the likelihood of obtaining the data in a study when the null hypothesis is true

What does it mean to have a certain p Value?

Values close to 0 indicate that the observed difference is unlikely to be due to chance, whereas a P value close to 1 suggests no difference between the groups other than due to chance.

Type I Error

error made in a significance test when the researcher rejects the null hypothesis when it is actually true

Type II Error

error made in a significance test when the researcher fails to reject the null hypothesis when it is actually false

When is it appropriate to reject the null hypothesis?

When the calculated statistic falls in the most extreme portion of this distribution, the critical region, and we can accept the scientific/alternative hypothesis.

What are the APA style sections and what is encompassed in each?

Abstract:

• brief comprehensive study of the contents of the paper

• public significance statement: summarizes the significance of the study for a general audience along with the abstract

Introduction:

• introduce main topic

• talk about how it is new to the field

• go over any variables of the study and how they relate to the topic

• state hypothesis

Methods:

• participants, material, design, procedure

Results:

• discuss results, how you quantify them or organize them

Discussion:

• what the results mean for your topic/hypothesis and for the field itself

Reference List:

• provides a reliable way for readers to reference the works authors cite to acknowledge previous scholarship

• used to document and substantiate statements made about the literature (as data in the paper is used to support hypothesis and conclusions)

What goes on a title page?

Title of the paper, name of each author of the paper, affiliation for each author, author note, running head, and page number.

What verb tense is used in a research proposal?

Future tense.

How to do in-text citations and special formatting issues along with this.

• A parenthetical citation includes the author’s last name and year of publication, separated by a comma, in parentheses at the end of the sentence. (if uses page numbers, add behind publication year)

• A narrative citation includes the author’s name directly in the sentence, with the year of publication directly following the author’s name. (if uses page numbers, add behind publication year)

• If citing multiple works in a sentence, cite them the same in order of reference list and put semi-colon between.

• When citing group author put group abbreviation in brackets [FDA]

How to do references?

• center the title (References)

• Double space the reference entries, use hanging indent, organize them alphabetically by surname of first author on each work

• invert author name, capitalize only first letter of article titles, first word after colon or dash in the title, and proper nouns

• capitalize all major words in journal titles, italicize titles of longer works such as books and journals

• do NOT italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works suc has journal articles or essays in edited collections