AP U.S. Government: Key Concepts and Principles

Limited government

Government power is restricted by the Constitution to protect individual rights and prevent tyranny.

Natural rights

Fundamental rights people are born with—life, liberty, and property—that governments must respect and protect.

Popular sovereignty

The idea that political authority comes from the people, who give consent to be governed.

Republicanism

A system where citizens elect representatives to make laws and govern on their behalf.

Social contract

The theory that people consent to give up some freedoms in exchange for government protection of rights.

Participatory democracy

A model where broad citizen involvement directly influences political decisions and policy.

Pluralist democracy

Power is distributed among competing groups that influence policy through negotiation and compromise.

Elite democracy

A small, wealthy, and educated group holds most of the political power and shapes decisions.

Federalism

Power is divided and shared between national and state governments to balance authority.

Exclusive powers

Powers held only by one level of government, usually the national government.

Concurrent powers

Powers shared by both the federal and state governments at the same time.

Mandates

Federal orders requiring states or localities to take certain actions, sometimes without funding.

Revenue sharing

Federal money distributed to state or local governments with few restrictions on use.

Categorical grants

Federal funds given for specific, narrowly defined purposes with strict conditions.

Block grants

Federal funds given for broad purposes, allowing states more flexibility in spending.

Enumerated powers

Powers clearly listed in the Constitution that define Congress's authority.

Implied powers

Powers not specifically written but allowed by the Necessary and Proper Clause to carry out enumerated powers.

Constituency

The group of voters and residents that an elected official represents.

Filibuster

A Senate tactic where members delay or block action on a bill through extended debate.

Cloture

The Senate procedure to end debate and bring a bill to a vote, requiring 60 votes.

Unanimous consent

Agreement by all senators to skip formal procedures and move legislation faster.

Hold in the Senate

A senator's notice that they object to a bill or nomination, delaying floor action.

Discharge petition

A House motion that forces a bill out of committee to the floor for a vote.

Discretionary spending

Government spending decided annually through the budget process.

Mandatory spending

Spending required by law, mostly for entitlement programs like Social Security.

Entitlement programs

Government programs that provide benefits to individuals who meet eligibility rules.

Budget deficit

When government spending exceeds its revenue in a single fiscal year.

Pork barrel legislation

Government spending added to bills to benefit a specific district or state.

Logrolling

Lawmakers trade votes or support to help each other pass desired bills.

Gerrymandering

Drawing voting district boundaries to favor one political party or group.

Redistricting

Redrawing congressional district lines after the census to reflect population changes.

Reapportionment

Redistributing House seats among states after each census based on population.

Divided government

When one party controls the presidency and another controls Congress.

Lame duck president

A president with reduced influence at the end of their term after a successor is elected.

Trustee model

Representatives make decisions using their own judgment of what is best for the nation.

Delegate model

Representatives make decisions strictly based on their constituents' preferences.

Politico model

Representatives act as trustees or delegates depending on the specific issue.

Pocket veto

A bill automatically dies if the president takes no action while Congress is adjourned.

Executive order

A presidential directive with the force of law that manages the executive branch.

Executive agreement

An international agreement made by the president without Senate approval.

Signing statement

A written comment explaining how the president interprets or intends to enforce a law.

Stare decisis

The legal principle of following precedent to maintain consistency in judicial rulings.

Judicial activism

Judges broadly interpret the Constitution and are more willing to strike down laws or set new policy.

Judicial restraint

Judges defer to elected branches and only overturn laws when clearly unconstitutional.

Issue network

A loose, changing alliance of interest groups, officials, and experts that influence policy.

Iron triangle

A stable relationship among a congressional committee, a bureaucracy, and an interest group that controls policy in one area.

Oversight

Congress's authority to monitor and review executive branch actions to ensure laws are properly enforced.

Civil liberties

Freedoms that protect individuals from government interference and overreach.

Civil rights

Government protections that guarantee equal treatment and protect against discrimination.

Selective incorporation

The process of applying parts of the Bill of Rights to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment.

Symbolic speech

Actions that convey a message and are protected under the First Amendment.

Defamatory speech

False statements that harm another person's reputation and are not protected.

Due process clause

Constitutional guarantee that government must act fairly and respect legal rights.

Equal protection clause

Part of the Fourteenth Amendment requiring states to treat people equally under the law.

Miranda rule

Requires police to inform suspects of their rights before questioning.

Exclusionary rule

Evidence obtained illegally by police cannot be used in court.

General election

The election in which voters choose officeholders from the nominees of each party.

Mid-term elections

Elections held halfway through a president's term that determine control of Congress.

Linkage institutions

Channels like parties, media, and interest groups that connect citizens to government.

Critical election

An election that marks a lasting shift in party coalitions or major policy priorities.

Realignment

A long-term change in party loyalty among groups of voters.

Proportional system

Electoral system where parties win seats based on their share of votes.

Winner-take-all system

Electoral system where the candidate with the most votes wins all representation.

Party coalition

The groups and demographics that consistently support a political party.

Bipartisan

When members of both parties cooperate to pass legislation or solve issues.

Open primary

A primary where any registered voter can choose which party's election to vote in.

Closed primary

A primary where only registered party members can vote for their party's nominees.

Party caucus

A meeting of party members to discuss, plan, and select candidates or strategies.

Incumbency advantage

Benefits that help current officeholders win re-election, such as name recognition and funding.

PAC

Political Action Committee that raises and donates money to candidates within legal contribution limits.

Super PAC

Independent group that can raise unlimited money to support or oppose candidates without coordinating with campaigns.

Independent expenditure

Money spent to advocate for or against candidates without direct coordination.

Horse race journalism

Media coverage focused on competition and polls rather than policy issues.

Franchise / suffrage

The right to vote, which has expanded to more groups over time.

Keynesian theory

Economic theory that government spending should increase during recessions to boost demand.

Supply-side theory

The idea that lower taxes and fewer regulations promote investment and growth.

Monetary policy

Federal Reserve management of the money supply and interest rates to stabilize the economy.

Fiscal policy

Government use of taxing and spending to influence economic activity.

Rational-choice voting

Voting based on personal benefit after weighing candidates and policies.

Retrospective voting

Voting based on a candidate's or party's past performance in office.

Prospective voting

Voting based on a candidate's promises or future plans.

Party-line voting

Consistently voting for all candidates from one political party.

Demographics

Population characteristics like age, race, gender, and income used to predict behavior.

Individualism

Belief that people should take responsibility for themselves and pursue success through their own effort.

Equality of opportunity

The principle that everyone should have the same chance to succeed under the law.

Free enterprise

An economic system with private ownership, voluntary exchange, and limited government interference.

Rule of law

The idea that all people, including leaders, must follow the law equally.

Political socialization

The process by which individuals develop political beliefs and values over time.

Political ideology

A consistent set of beliefs about government's role in society and the economy.

Liberal ideology

Belief in active government to promote equality, reform, and social welfare.

Conservative ideology

Belief in small government, free markets, and preservation of traditional values.